Table of Contents
1Psychological Tests................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1What is a psychological test..............................................................................................................................................7
1.2Characteristics of a good test............................................................................................................................................7
1.3Classification of tests.........................................................................................................................................................7
1.4Why classify tests..............................................................................................................................................................8
1.5Classification process for developers................................................................................................................................8
1.6Process followed for Classifying a Measure – Psychometrics Committee.........................................................................8
2Principles of measurement......................................................................................................................................................9
2.1Properties of measurement scales....................................................................................................................................9
2.2Categories measurement levels........................................................................................................................................9
2.3Types of measurement scales...........................................................................................................................................9
2.4Considerations for scale selection...................................................................................................................................10
3Transformation of Raw Scores................................................................................................................................................10
3.1Displaying Data................................................................................................................................................................10
3.2Measures of Variability...................................................................................................................................................11
3.3Errors in measurement....................................................................................................................................................11
3.3.1Random sampling error............................................................................................................................................11
3.3.2Systematic error / Non sampling error.....................................................................................................................11
4Norms & Criterion.................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.1Measures for scores........................................................................................................................................................11
4.2Norms............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.2.1Standard Normal Distribution..................................................................................................................................11
4.2.2Establishing norm groups.........................................................................................................................................12
4.2.3Co-norming measures..............................................................................................................................................12
4.2.4Types of test norms..................................................................................................................................................12
4.3Cut-off Scores / external criterion...................................................................................................................................14
5Reliability............................................................................................................................................................................... 14
5.1Defining reliability...........................................................................................................................................................14
5.2Types of reliability...........................................................................................................................................................14
5.2.1Test-Retest Reliability...............................................................................................................................................14
5.2.2Parallel (alternate) Forms Reliability.........................................................................................................................14
5.2.3Split half reliability....................................................................................................................................................14
5.2.4Inter item consistency..............................................................................................................................................15
5.2.5Inter-rater (scorer) Reliability...................................................................................................................................15
5.2.6Intra-scorer reliability...............................................................................................................................................15
5.3Factors That Can Influence Reliability..............................................................................................................................15
5.3.1Random sampling error............................................................................................................................................15
5.3.2Systematic / Non-sampling error..............................................................................................................................15
5.3.3Respondent error.....................................................................................................................................................15
5.3.4Intra individual factors.............................................................................................................................................16
5.3.5Administrative error.................................................................................................................................................16
, 5.4Reliability in practice.......................................................................................................................................................16
5.4.1Magnitude of reliability coefficient..........................................................................................................................16
5.4.2Standard measurement error - SME.........................................................................................................................16
5.4.3Mastery assessment.................................................................................................................................................17
6Validity................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.1Definitions....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.2Types of validity..............................................................................................................................................................17
6.2.1Content descriptions................................................................................................................................................17
6.3Content validity...............................................................................................................................................................17
6.3.1Construct identification............................................................................................................................................17
6.3.2Criterion prediction procedures...............................................................................................................................18
6.4Criterion measures..........................................................................................................................................................19
6.4.1Validity generalisation..............................................................................................................................................19
6.4.2Meta analysis...........................................................................................................................................................20
6.4.3Cross validation........................................................................................................................................................20
6.5Uniform validity...............................................................................................................................................................20
6.6Statistical interpretations validity....................................................................................................................................20
6.6.1Validity Coefficient...................................................................................................................................................20
6.6.2Correlation coefficient..............................................................................................................................................20
6.6.3Coefficient of determination....................................................................................................................................21
6.6.4Standard error of estimation....................................................................................................................................21
6.6.5Regression analysis...................................................................................................................................................21
6.7Bias & validity..................................................................................................................................................................21
7Steps in test development......................................................................................................................................................22
7.1Planning.......................................................................................................................................................................... 22
7.2Item writing..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
7.3Assembly & Pretesting Of A Measure..............................................................................................................................22
7.4Technical Evaluation........................................................................................................................................................25
7.5Submitting The Measure For Classification.....................................................................................................................25
7.6Ongoing Refinement.......................................................................................................................................................25
8Ethics...................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.1Core ethics...................................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.2Why should use of psychological measures be controlled..............................................................................................25
8.3Good assessment practices.............................................................................................................................................25
8.4Assessment of friends & family.......................................................................................................................................26
8.5Use of a translator...........................................................................................................................................................26
8.6In case of DTF.................................................................................................................................................................. 26
8.7Development of psychological tests................................................................................................................................27
8.8Designing fair & unbiased selection measures................................................................................................................27
8.9Consequences of unethical behaviour / working outside Scope of Practice...................................................................27
8.10Administration to group settings...................................................................................................................................27
8.11Cognitive assessments..................................................................................................................................................28
8.12 Power relationship between practitioner & testtaker..................................................................................................28
, 8.12.1Conditions for assessment practitioner..................................................................................................................28
8.12.2Issues for psychological testing in culturally & linguistically diverse group............................................................28
8.12.3Ethical Issues to consider before using tests..........................................................................................................28
8.12.4Ethical Issues to Consider During Test Administration............................................................................................31
8.13Ethical Issues to Consider After Using Tests in an Assessment Context.........................................................................31
8.13.1Using Appropriate Norms.......................................................................................................................................31
8.13.2Meaningful Feedback.............................................................................................................................................32
9Assessment in practice...........................................................................................................................................................33
9.1Career counselling at school level...................................................................................................................................33
9.2South African Developmental Screening Test (SADST.....................................................................................................33
9.3Cognitive / Intelligence testing........................................................................................................................................33
10Statutory control.................................................................................................................................................................. 34
10.1Employment Equity Act 55 Of 1999..............................................................................................................................34
10.2Health Professions Act 56 Of 1974................................................................................................................................34
10.2.1What is a psychological act.....................................................................................................................................34
10.2.2Scope for psychology professionals (psychologists)...............................................................................................34
10.2.3Specific conditions under which psychological tests may be used.........................................................................35
10.2.4Use of translators – as in ethical rules of conduct for professionals.......................................................................35
11Rules of conduct - psychology..............................................................................................................................................35
11.1Professional competence..............................................................................................................................................36
11.1.1General................................................................................................................................................................... 36
11.1.2Competency limits..................................................................................................................................................36
11.1.3Maintaining competency........................................................................................................................................36
11.1.4Adding new competencies.....................................................................................................................................36
11.1.5Extraordinary circumstances..................................................................................................................................36
11.1.6Personal impairment..............................................................................................................................................36
11.1.7Delegation of work.................................................................................................................................................36
11.1.8Use of interpreters.................................................................................................................................................36
11.2Professional relations....................................................................................................................................................37
11.2.1Respect for human rights and others.....................................................................................................................37
11.2.2Informed consent to professional procedures........................................................................................................37
11.3Unfair discrimination.....................................................................................................................................................37
11.3.1Sexual harassment.................................................................................................................................................37
11.3.2Avoiding harm........................................................................................................................................................38
11.3.3Conflict of interest..................................................................................................................................................38
11.3.4Third-party requests for service.............................................................................................................................38
11.3.5Multiple relationships............................................................................................................................................38
11.3.6Exploitative relationships.......................................................................................................................................38
11.3.7Cooperation with other professionals....................................................................................................................38
11.3.8Psychological services rendered to or through organisations.................................................................................39
11.3.9Delegation and supervision of psychological services............................................................................................39
11.4Privacy, confidentiality and records...............................................................................................................................39
11.4.1Rights to confidentiality.........................................................................................................................................39
, 11.4.2Discussing exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality..................................................................................39
11.4.3Limits on invasion of privacy..................................................................................................................................40
11.4.4Disclosures.............................................................................................................................................................40
11.4.5Multiple clients.......................................................................................................................................................40
11.4.6Legally dependent clients.......................................................................................................................................40
11.4.7Release of confidential information.......................................................................................................................40
11.4.8Reporting abuse of children and vulnerable adults................................................................................................40
11.4.9Professional consultations......................................................................................................................................40
11.4.10Disguising confidential information used for didactic or other purposes.............................................................40
11.4.11Maintenance, dissemination and keeping of records...........................................................................................41
11.5Fees and financial arrangements...................................................................................................................................41
11.5.1Overcharging..........................................................................................................................................................41
11.5.2Accuracy in billing...................................................................................................................................................41
11.5.3Limitations..............................................................................................................................................................41
11.5.4Collection of outstanding fees................................................................................................................................41
11.5.5Withholding information, reports or records owing to non-payment....................................................................41
11.5.6Account itemisation...............................................................................................................................................42
11.5.7Barter with clients..................................................................................................................................................42
11.5.8Withholding of emergency services.......................................................................................................................42
11.6Assessment Activities....................................................................................................................................................42
11.6.1Assessment in professional context.......................................................................................................................42
11.6.2Appropriate use of assessment methods...............................................................................................................42
11.6.3Informed consent in assessments..........................................................................................................................43
11.6.4Test development...................................................................................................................................................43
11.6.5Cultural diversity....................................................................................................................................................43
11.6.6Communication of results......................................................................................................................................44
11.6.7Information for professional users.........................................................................................................................44
11.6.8Interpreting assessment results.............................................................................................................................44
11.6.9Explaining assessment results................................................................................................................................44
11.6.10Test scoring and interpretation services...............................................................................................................44
11.6.11Release of test data..............................................................................................................................................44
11.6.12Obsolete tests and outdated test results..............................................................................................................45
11.6.13Maintaining test security......................................................................................................................................45
11.7Psycho-Legal Activities..................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.1Competence...........................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.2Basis for psycho-legal opinion................................................................................................................................45
11.7.3Qualified opinions..................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.4 Truthfulness and candour......................................................................................................................................45
11.7.5Conflicting roles......................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.6Maintenance of expert-witness role......................................................................................................................45
11.7.7Prior relationships..................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.8Role as witness on the facts...................................................................................................................................45
11.8Activities In Respect Of Advertising And Other Public Statements................................................................................45
1Psychological Tests................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1What is a psychological test..............................................................................................................................................7
1.2Characteristics of a good test............................................................................................................................................7
1.3Classification of tests.........................................................................................................................................................7
1.4Why classify tests..............................................................................................................................................................8
1.5Classification process for developers................................................................................................................................8
1.6Process followed for Classifying a Measure – Psychometrics Committee.........................................................................8
2Principles of measurement......................................................................................................................................................9
2.1Properties of measurement scales....................................................................................................................................9
2.2Categories measurement levels........................................................................................................................................9
2.3Types of measurement scales...........................................................................................................................................9
2.4Considerations for scale selection...................................................................................................................................10
3Transformation of Raw Scores................................................................................................................................................10
3.1Displaying Data................................................................................................................................................................10
3.2Measures of Variability...................................................................................................................................................11
3.3Errors in measurement....................................................................................................................................................11
3.3.1Random sampling error............................................................................................................................................11
3.3.2Systematic error / Non sampling error.....................................................................................................................11
4Norms & Criterion.................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.1Measures for scores........................................................................................................................................................11
4.2Norms............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.2.1Standard Normal Distribution..................................................................................................................................11
4.2.2Establishing norm groups.........................................................................................................................................12
4.2.3Co-norming measures..............................................................................................................................................12
4.2.4Types of test norms..................................................................................................................................................12
4.3Cut-off Scores / external criterion...................................................................................................................................14
5Reliability............................................................................................................................................................................... 14
5.1Defining reliability...........................................................................................................................................................14
5.2Types of reliability...........................................................................................................................................................14
5.2.1Test-Retest Reliability...............................................................................................................................................14
5.2.2Parallel (alternate) Forms Reliability.........................................................................................................................14
5.2.3Split half reliability....................................................................................................................................................14
5.2.4Inter item consistency..............................................................................................................................................15
5.2.5Inter-rater (scorer) Reliability...................................................................................................................................15
5.2.6Intra-scorer reliability...............................................................................................................................................15
5.3Factors That Can Influence Reliability..............................................................................................................................15
5.3.1Random sampling error............................................................................................................................................15
5.3.2Systematic / Non-sampling error..............................................................................................................................15
5.3.3Respondent error.....................................................................................................................................................15
5.3.4Intra individual factors.............................................................................................................................................16
5.3.5Administrative error.................................................................................................................................................16
, 5.4Reliability in practice.......................................................................................................................................................16
5.4.1Magnitude of reliability coefficient..........................................................................................................................16
5.4.2Standard measurement error - SME.........................................................................................................................16
5.4.3Mastery assessment.................................................................................................................................................17
6Validity................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.1Definitions....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.2Types of validity..............................................................................................................................................................17
6.2.1Content descriptions................................................................................................................................................17
6.3Content validity...............................................................................................................................................................17
6.3.1Construct identification............................................................................................................................................17
6.3.2Criterion prediction procedures...............................................................................................................................18
6.4Criterion measures..........................................................................................................................................................19
6.4.1Validity generalisation..............................................................................................................................................19
6.4.2Meta analysis...........................................................................................................................................................20
6.4.3Cross validation........................................................................................................................................................20
6.5Uniform validity...............................................................................................................................................................20
6.6Statistical interpretations validity....................................................................................................................................20
6.6.1Validity Coefficient...................................................................................................................................................20
6.6.2Correlation coefficient..............................................................................................................................................20
6.6.3Coefficient of determination....................................................................................................................................21
6.6.4Standard error of estimation....................................................................................................................................21
6.6.5Regression analysis...................................................................................................................................................21
6.7Bias & validity..................................................................................................................................................................21
7Steps in test development......................................................................................................................................................22
7.1Planning.......................................................................................................................................................................... 22
7.2Item writing..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
7.3Assembly & Pretesting Of A Measure..............................................................................................................................22
7.4Technical Evaluation........................................................................................................................................................25
7.5Submitting The Measure For Classification.....................................................................................................................25
7.6Ongoing Refinement.......................................................................................................................................................25
8Ethics...................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.1Core ethics...................................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.2Why should use of psychological measures be controlled..............................................................................................25
8.3Good assessment practices.............................................................................................................................................25
8.4Assessment of friends & family.......................................................................................................................................26
8.5Use of a translator...........................................................................................................................................................26
8.6In case of DTF.................................................................................................................................................................. 26
8.7Development of psychological tests................................................................................................................................27
8.8Designing fair & unbiased selection measures................................................................................................................27
8.9Consequences of unethical behaviour / working outside Scope of Practice...................................................................27
8.10Administration to group settings...................................................................................................................................27
8.11Cognitive assessments..................................................................................................................................................28
8.12 Power relationship between practitioner & testtaker..................................................................................................28
, 8.12.1Conditions for assessment practitioner..................................................................................................................28
8.12.2Issues for psychological testing in culturally & linguistically diverse group............................................................28
8.12.3Ethical Issues to consider before using tests..........................................................................................................28
8.12.4Ethical Issues to Consider During Test Administration............................................................................................31
8.13Ethical Issues to Consider After Using Tests in an Assessment Context.........................................................................31
8.13.1Using Appropriate Norms.......................................................................................................................................31
8.13.2Meaningful Feedback.............................................................................................................................................32
9Assessment in practice...........................................................................................................................................................33
9.1Career counselling at school level...................................................................................................................................33
9.2South African Developmental Screening Test (SADST.....................................................................................................33
9.3Cognitive / Intelligence testing........................................................................................................................................33
10Statutory control.................................................................................................................................................................. 34
10.1Employment Equity Act 55 Of 1999..............................................................................................................................34
10.2Health Professions Act 56 Of 1974................................................................................................................................34
10.2.1What is a psychological act.....................................................................................................................................34
10.2.2Scope for psychology professionals (psychologists)...............................................................................................34
10.2.3Specific conditions under which psychological tests may be used.........................................................................35
10.2.4Use of translators – as in ethical rules of conduct for professionals.......................................................................35
11Rules of conduct - psychology..............................................................................................................................................35
11.1Professional competence..............................................................................................................................................36
11.1.1General................................................................................................................................................................... 36
11.1.2Competency limits..................................................................................................................................................36
11.1.3Maintaining competency........................................................................................................................................36
11.1.4Adding new competencies.....................................................................................................................................36
11.1.5Extraordinary circumstances..................................................................................................................................36
11.1.6Personal impairment..............................................................................................................................................36
11.1.7Delegation of work.................................................................................................................................................36
11.1.8Use of interpreters.................................................................................................................................................36
11.2Professional relations....................................................................................................................................................37
11.2.1Respect for human rights and others.....................................................................................................................37
11.2.2Informed consent to professional procedures........................................................................................................37
11.3Unfair discrimination.....................................................................................................................................................37
11.3.1Sexual harassment.................................................................................................................................................37
11.3.2Avoiding harm........................................................................................................................................................38
11.3.3Conflict of interest..................................................................................................................................................38
11.3.4Third-party requests for service.............................................................................................................................38
11.3.5Multiple relationships............................................................................................................................................38
11.3.6Exploitative relationships.......................................................................................................................................38
11.3.7Cooperation with other professionals....................................................................................................................38
11.3.8Psychological services rendered to or through organisations.................................................................................39
11.3.9Delegation and supervision of psychological services............................................................................................39
11.4Privacy, confidentiality and records...............................................................................................................................39
11.4.1Rights to confidentiality.........................................................................................................................................39
, 11.4.2Discussing exceptions to the requirement of confidentiality..................................................................................39
11.4.3Limits on invasion of privacy..................................................................................................................................40
11.4.4Disclosures.............................................................................................................................................................40
11.4.5Multiple clients.......................................................................................................................................................40
11.4.6Legally dependent clients.......................................................................................................................................40
11.4.7Release of confidential information.......................................................................................................................40
11.4.8Reporting abuse of children and vulnerable adults................................................................................................40
11.4.9Professional consultations......................................................................................................................................40
11.4.10Disguising confidential information used for didactic or other purposes.............................................................40
11.4.11Maintenance, dissemination and keeping of records...........................................................................................41
11.5Fees and financial arrangements...................................................................................................................................41
11.5.1Overcharging..........................................................................................................................................................41
11.5.2Accuracy in billing...................................................................................................................................................41
11.5.3Limitations..............................................................................................................................................................41
11.5.4Collection of outstanding fees................................................................................................................................41
11.5.5Withholding information, reports or records owing to non-payment....................................................................41
11.5.6Account itemisation...............................................................................................................................................42
11.5.7Barter with clients..................................................................................................................................................42
11.5.8Withholding of emergency services.......................................................................................................................42
11.6Assessment Activities....................................................................................................................................................42
11.6.1Assessment in professional context.......................................................................................................................42
11.6.2Appropriate use of assessment methods...............................................................................................................42
11.6.3Informed consent in assessments..........................................................................................................................43
11.6.4Test development...................................................................................................................................................43
11.6.5Cultural diversity....................................................................................................................................................43
11.6.6Communication of results......................................................................................................................................44
11.6.7Information for professional users.........................................................................................................................44
11.6.8Interpreting assessment results.............................................................................................................................44
11.6.9Explaining assessment results................................................................................................................................44
11.6.10Test scoring and interpretation services...............................................................................................................44
11.6.11Release of test data..............................................................................................................................................44
11.6.12Obsolete tests and outdated test results..............................................................................................................45
11.6.13Maintaining test security......................................................................................................................................45
11.7Psycho-Legal Activities..................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.1Competence...........................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.2Basis for psycho-legal opinion................................................................................................................................45
11.7.3Qualified opinions..................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.4 Truthfulness and candour......................................................................................................................................45
11.7.5Conflicting roles......................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.6Maintenance of expert-witness role......................................................................................................................45
11.7.7Prior relationships..................................................................................................................................................45
11.7.8Role as witness on the facts...................................................................................................................................45
11.8Activities In Respect Of Advertising And Other Public Statements................................................................................45
