African Americans- Turning Points
Reconstruction
Political-
African Americans were seen to make great strides in the advancement of their political rights
through the 14th, 13th and 15th amendments
Their rights were secured de jure, but de facto they failed to materialise given the mounted
opposition in the south. All the amendments, bar the 13 th but this was virtually the case with
sharecropping, were undermined by states and federal government gave full go ahead to this.
14th undermined by slaughter house and us v Cruikshank
15th undermined by voting restrictions
Civil rights act 1875- ruled against any formal moves to segregation, yet common theme in that it
was ignored and overturned in 1833
‘Stood in a brief moment in the sun’ before it went behind a large cloud for a long period.
Slaughter house cases of 1873. Right of citizens was under the jurisdiction of state control not federal
control. It ruled that the 14th amendment only protected a persons individual rights but not his or her
state rights. This impeded the ability for such legislation like the amendments to have an impact in
actually improving the political status of African Americans. In reality their position remained inferior.
Fed govt allowed the southern states to circumvent the amendments and other established rights.
Blanche K Bruce- Black senator, some evidence of advancements political for African Americans.
Unable to exercise their right to vote as dictated in the 15 th amendment- south developed
grandfather clauses, poll taxes and literacy tests to prevent black voters. This was allowed/confirmed
by Mississippi v Williams 1898 which ruled such voting requirements as constitutional (knowing full
well it would only restrict AA’s and not poor white voters).
When reconstruction ended in 1877 and southern states regained political control over their own
territory, the legal use of the concept of ‘state rights’ would enable white southerners to retain their
old way of life and limit the rights of AA’s. Court judgements were frequently used to deprive the
political rights gained at the beginning of reconstruction.
Democratic political dominance of the southern stats was seen by the white community as a
guarantee of their way of life and the maintain of segregation. They allowed the south to restrict AA’s
in all aspects of life.
Us v Cruickshank 1876- enforcement acts empowered federal officers to take action only against
states and not against individuals.
Economic-
In addition to lack of education it was land that was frequently most lacking, most African Americans
merely became wage-earning labourers. With industrial development slow compared to the north,
and blacks lacking any vocational skills or education, most were left to sharecropping (freedmen
could rent and work small portions of lands, but would have to give half of their crops to the
landowners as rent, normally went back to working on the same plantations they had been liberated
from).
There had been a vision of forty acres and a mule for all freedmen following the 1862 homestead act,
however this idea was never properly implemented. Due to Johnson’s discriminatory approach, land
confiscated from white owners was returned
Had no control over sharecropping contacts, or materials that they were provided. The white master
often demanded higher and higher proportions of the final crop. Became dominant in mainly cotton
industry.
Vast majority of black people in the south remained at the bottom of the economic pile: many
southern were determined they stayed inferior economically.
, Used as scab labour for when white workers engaged in industrial strikes, generated further tensions.
Employment in industry was often discouraged because it might threaten white employment
Housing generally remained of primitive quality for most African Americans
Relative economic weaknesses of the south would impact most on the poorer sections of the
community where African Americans were disproportionately represented.
Whites saw AA’s as economic competitors and as such this set a precedent for further racism.
Social-
Frederick Douglass- ‘free from the individual master but a slave to society’
Although educational opportunities were increasing they were still highly limited
Seemed no escape from a life of poverty, and in practice, had very few civil rights.
However some marked change for AA’s through the freedman’s Bureau, yet even these gains were
short lived as federal government support for education came to an end in 1872. Freedman’s
Bureau- included finding homes and employment for newly freed selves and providing medical care,
food and education for AA’s. Schools and hospitals were built.
Educational advancements were only for a minority of AA’s: 1890- 65% of black children in the south
remained illiterate
Real and justifiable fear emerged amongst the African American community due to the KKK and
southern racial sentiments. KKK was established in 1865, guaranteed the supremacy of the white
race and suggested that their dominance was God-given. Violence that they unleashed was
unprecedented, activities of the KKK reflected the tense inter-racial atmposhere in south. Memphis
1866- 46 were killed and 5 women raped as a result of a collision between two horse carriages (one
white one black). Lynchings were a prevalent feature of AA life during reconstruction.
Black codes- early Indication of southern white attitudes to the newly freed slaves. Southern states
determined to keep them inferior. Interracial unions outlawed, property could be owned (but rarely
afforded), barred from giving evidence against a white person, could not serve on juries, were not
permitted to vote, education (if it was allowed) was segregated.
Whilst formal segregation did not occur until they 1880s and 1890s, many aspects of it were
apparent from the beginning of their freedom from servitude in 1865.
Were given freedom of worship- helped foster a vital base in the future for civil rights campaigns.
Enforcement acts were overturned/ undermined by us v Cruikshank. This allowed for revival of more
racial practices.
Theories of racial superiority and social Darwinism were rife: asserted hierarchy of races and gave
pseudo-scientific justification necessary for discrimination against black people. Perpetuated black
stereotype of laziness, intellectual weakness and tendency to violence. This gave justification for not
educating black and defended the use of separate facilities.
New Deal- no real change for AA’s
Political-
Roosevelt claimed he was preoccupied with saving America and as such this rendered him powerless
to make a difference for many AA’s
He was too reliant of southern democratic support, if he insisted on federal action on black civil
rights he would lose the support of the southern democrats for his vital program
AA’s included in his administration- Robert Weaver became special advisor on the economic status of
the negro in 1934; led to grants of 45 million to build schools, hospitals and homes for AA’s.
Economic-
Black sharecroppers were not covered by the 1935 social security act or the National Labour
Relations Act that assisted so many others. This meant that the majority of AA’s missed out on the
reforms of the ND. Also ND say eviction of 2,000 blacks from their farms which was not helpful; many
sharecroppers who were crippled by the depression could not pay their rents.
Regulations implemented during the ND for employment were regularly evaded in the south.
Reconstruction
Political-
African Americans were seen to make great strides in the advancement of their political rights
through the 14th, 13th and 15th amendments
Their rights were secured de jure, but de facto they failed to materialise given the mounted
opposition in the south. All the amendments, bar the 13 th but this was virtually the case with
sharecropping, were undermined by states and federal government gave full go ahead to this.
14th undermined by slaughter house and us v Cruikshank
15th undermined by voting restrictions
Civil rights act 1875- ruled against any formal moves to segregation, yet common theme in that it
was ignored and overturned in 1833
‘Stood in a brief moment in the sun’ before it went behind a large cloud for a long period.
Slaughter house cases of 1873. Right of citizens was under the jurisdiction of state control not federal
control. It ruled that the 14th amendment only protected a persons individual rights but not his or her
state rights. This impeded the ability for such legislation like the amendments to have an impact in
actually improving the political status of African Americans. In reality their position remained inferior.
Fed govt allowed the southern states to circumvent the amendments and other established rights.
Blanche K Bruce- Black senator, some evidence of advancements political for African Americans.
Unable to exercise their right to vote as dictated in the 15 th amendment- south developed
grandfather clauses, poll taxes and literacy tests to prevent black voters. This was allowed/confirmed
by Mississippi v Williams 1898 which ruled such voting requirements as constitutional (knowing full
well it would only restrict AA’s and not poor white voters).
When reconstruction ended in 1877 and southern states regained political control over their own
territory, the legal use of the concept of ‘state rights’ would enable white southerners to retain their
old way of life and limit the rights of AA’s. Court judgements were frequently used to deprive the
political rights gained at the beginning of reconstruction.
Democratic political dominance of the southern stats was seen by the white community as a
guarantee of their way of life and the maintain of segregation. They allowed the south to restrict AA’s
in all aspects of life.
Us v Cruickshank 1876- enforcement acts empowered federal officers to take action only against
states and not against individuals.
Economic-
In addition to lack of education it was land that was frequently most lacking, most African Americans
merely became wage-earning labourers. With industrial development slow compared to the north,
and blacks lacking any vocational skills or education, most were left to sharecropping (freedmen
could rent and work small portions of lands, but would have to give half of their crops to the
landowners as rent, normally went back to working on the same plantations they had been liberated
from).
There had been a vision of forty acres and a mule for all freedmen following the 1862 homestead act,
however this idea was never properly implemented. Due to Johnson’s discriminatory approach, land
confiscated from white owners was returned
Had no control over sharecropping contacts, or materials that they were provided. The white master
often demanded higher and higher proportions of the final crop. Became dominant in mainly cotton
industry.
Vast majority of black people in the south remained at the bottom of the economic pile: many
southern were determined they stayed inferior economically.
, Used as scab labour for when white workers engaged in industrial strikes, generated further tensions.
Employment in industry was often discouraged because it might threaten white employment
Housing generally remained of primitive quality for most African Americans
Relative economic weaknesses of the south would impact most on the poorer sections of the
community where African Americans were disproportionately represented.
Whites saw AA’s as economic competitors and as such this set a precedent for further racism.
Social-
Frederick Douglass- ‘free from the individual master but a slave to society’
Although educational opportunities were increasing they were still highly limited
Seemed no escape from a life of poverty, and in practice, had very few civil rights.
However some marked change for AA’s through the freedman’s Bureau, yet even these gains were
short lived as federal government support for education came to an end in 1872. Freedman’s
Bureau- included finding homes and employment for newly freed selves and providing medical care,
food and education for AA’s. Schools and hospitals were built.
Educational advancements were only for a minority of AA’s: 1890- 65% of black children in the south
remained illiterate
Real and justifiable fear emerged amongst the African American community due to the KKK and
southern racial sentiments. KKK was established in 1865, guaranteed the supremacy of the white
race and suggested that their dominance was God-given. Violence that they unleashed was
unprecedented, activities of the KKK reflected the tense inter-racial atmposhere in south. Memphis
1866- 46 were killed and 5 women raped as a result of a collision between two horse carriages (one
white one black). Lynchings were a prevalent feature of AA life during reconstruction.
Black codes- early Indication of southern white attitudes to the newly freed slaves. Southern states
determined to keep them inferior. Interracial unions outlawed, property could be owned (but rarely
afforded), barred from giving evidence against a white person, could not serve on juries, were not
permitted to vote, education (if it was allowed) was segregated.
Whilst formal segregation did not occur until they 1880s and 1890s, many aspects of it were
apparent from the beginning of their freedom from servitude in 1865.
Were given freedom of worship- helped foster a vital base in the future for civil rights campaigns.
Enforcement acts were overturned/ undermined by us v Cruikshank. This allowed for revival of more
racial practices.
Theories of racial superiority and social Darwinism were rife: asserted hierarchy of races and gave
pseudo-scientific justification necessary for discrimination against black people. Perpetuated black
stereotype of laziness, intellectual weakness and tendency to violence. This gave justification for not
educating black and defended the use of separate facilities.
New Deal- no real change for AA’s
Political-
Roosevelt claimed he was preoccupied with saving America and as such this rendered him powerless
to make a difference for many AA’s
He was too reliant of southern democratic support, if he insisted on federal action on black civil
rights he would lose the support of the southern democrats for his vital program
AA’s included in his administration- Robert Weaver became special advisor on the economic status of
the negro in 1934; led to grants of 45 million to build schools, hospitals and homes for AA’s.
Economic-
Black sharecroppers were not covered by the 1935 social security act or the National Labour
Relations Act that assisted so many others. This meant that the majority of AA’s missed out on the
reforms of the ND. Also ND say eviction of 2,000 blacks from their farms which was not helpful; many
sharecroppers who were crippled by the depression could not pay their rents.
Regulations implemented during the ND for employment were regularly evaded in the south.
