Human Growth and Development CLEP test questions and answers.

nature vs. nurture controversy it is agreed that both have some influence in development, but some people think it is more one than the other. biologically built vs. environment tabula rasa this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of the nature versus nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on Discontinuity or Stage Theories Argues that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage involves a specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves on to the next stage. The developing person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively. Continuity Theories Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth process. Developmental change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills and behavior improve but they do not change in a qualitatively.) Child Development vs. Life Span Some theories of development argue that development is complete at the end of childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget are examples). Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout the entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective). universality vs. context specific a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods (such as Piaget proposed for his theory) Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are differences in development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist cultures versus individualistic cultures) Collectivist cultures Places greater value on the common good than individual achievement Individualistic cultures values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual goals accommodation by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme assimilation by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it into an existing scheme Scheme by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events disequilibrium what happens when a child understands the world in a particular way (their scheme) then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding. constructivism Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema (organized patterns of thought or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the environment. Piaget's stages of cognitive development sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations (each stage represents a qualitatively different way of thinking instead of just acquiring more information over time) sensorimotor stage 0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end of this stage (understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed) & knows what they can do with their senses. By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for another thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was observed). Piaget. preoperational stage 2-7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language), are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives), use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect), use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects), and think semilogically. Piaget. concrete operations 7-11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object changing form is still the same object), reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start), conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance changes), can group things into categories, and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget. Formal operations 12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he thought not all people reach this stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Piaget. information processing approach a relatively new approach that uses the computer as a metaphor for the human mind (they use the two-store model of memory) learning theory or the behaviorist perspective describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a change in observable behavior (and behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment). (key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura) John Watson founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth we only have these emotions: love, anger, and fear) learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Pavlov's classical conditioning (sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning) Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing a reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus. {First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned Second letter = stimulus/response} Before conditioning: US -> UR Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka going back to the original behavior) higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS Stimulus generalization When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned) carries over to another related area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other bugs because they are so similar. stimulus discrimination only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC) response for the specific/exact stimulus (not similar ones like generalization) Watson and Little Albert The psychologist classically conditioned the infant to be afraid of a white rat, by pairing the white rat (a neutral stimuli) with a frightening, loud noise, causing the infant to associate the rat with the noise. type R (response) or operant conditioning by Skinner. -Reinforcement is to increase (+) the behavior. -Punishment is to decrease (-) the behavior. -Positive is introducing something. -Negative is taking away something. Shaping A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more discriminatively (similar actions are reinforced in a way that leads them to the desired goal). social learning theory/social cognitive theory by Bandura. changes in behavior are acquired not only by conditioning but also through observational learning (learning from models, which requires attention, retention, reproduction of the action, and motivation/a motive) vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment seeing others reinforced or punished (respectively) for certain behaviors influences how the viewer behaves psychodynamic/psychoanalytic personality theories (most hold that personality is mainly unconscious) descendants of/based on Freud's theories. (key people: Freud and Erikson) Id, Ego, Superego according to Freud's psychodynamic personality theory -occurs at birth, Pleasure principle; unconscious instincts; irrational; seeks instant gratification; contains the libido -Occurs around 6 months, reality principle; mediates id and reality; executive branch -occurs around 6 years old, morality principle, personal consciences, personal ideals libido sexual energy in the id. Freud. Repression When unwanted/unacceptable thoughts are pushed down in the unconscious. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Rationalization Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Reaction Formation Behaving exactly the opposite of one's true feelings. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Regression reversion to immature patterns of behavior (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Projection Attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, motives, or shortcomings to others. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Displacement Shifting unacceptable feelings from their original source to a safer, substitute target. ex. you are mad at our boss, but do not yell at your boss, instead you become angry with a family member when you return home (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Sublimation A useful socially acceptable course of behavior replaces a socially unacceptable or distasteful impulse. ex. A person who feels aggression due to lack of control, plays an aggressive game of basketball with friends everyday. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Intellectualization By dealing with a stressful situation in an intellectual and unemotional manner, a person detaches him or herself from the stress (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) denial not admitting/acknowledging that a very unpleasant thing has happened (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Freud's Psychosexual Stages Oral (birth - 1 year : mouth), Anal (1-3 years : potty training), Phallic (3-6 years : boy-girl-mom-dad-thing), Latency (6-11 years : none), Genital (adolescence : marriage) Freud said that these develop personality depending on how they are dealt with. (the first three being the most important)