Psychology Revision
-Attachment-
• Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of
attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father.
WHAT IS ATTACHMENT
Schaffer (1996):
“A long enduring, emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual. The object of the attachment
is generally someone (most often a parent) who returns the child’s feelings, creating a tie that can
be extremely powerful and emotionally laden in both directions.”
From an early age babies have meaningful social interactions with their carers. It is believed that
these interactions have important functions for the child social development.
One of the key interactions is their non-verbal communication. These interactions may form the
basis of attachment between infant and caregiver.
1) Reciprocity
Reciprocity is a description of how two people interact.
The mother-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both the infant and mother respond to
each others signals and each elicits a response from each other.
Feldman and Eidelman believe that babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ and signal that
they are ready for interaction. Mothers typically pick up on and respond to infant alternate
around 2/3 of the time.
Feldman says that from around three months this interaction tends to be increasingly
frequent and involves close attention to each others verbal signals and facial expressions.
Both the mother and child can initiate interactions.
Brazleton described this interaction as a rhythm which allows the infant and caregiver to
anticipate behaviour and respond appropriately. Sensitivity to an infants needs is a key
component to good attachment.
2) Interactional Synchrony
Is the coordinated rhythmic exchanged between carer and infant.
Feldman defined it as “the temporal co-ordination of micro-level social behaviour”.
Meltzoff and Moore (77)
• Observed the beginning of interactional synchrony in infants as young as two weeks old. An
adult displayed one of three facial gestures.
• The child’s response was filmed and identified by independent observers.
• An association was found between the gesture the adult had and the one that the baby had
displayed.
,Evaluation: Caregiver Interactions
1) Reciprocity
2) Interactional Synchrony
Limitation:
Research into caregiver interactions is limited b/c observations do not tell us the PURPOSE of
reciprocity or interactional synchrony.
Feldman says that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe the behaviours that occur at the
same time. They can be reliably observed, but this may not be particularly useful as it does not tell
us their purpose.
However evidence is given for how interactional synchrony and reciprocity can lead to mother-
infant attachment;
Isabella et al. Observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony.
• The research also assed the quality of the infant-mother attachment.
• The found: High levels of synchrony led to high quality attachment between the infant and
mother.
• This shows that the purpose of synchrony may be to develop the attachment
Research Methods Limitations of infant-caregiver research:
It is difficult to measure infants in research as they use their faces frequently. Through general
activity their faces move and it is difficult to judge between general movement and imitating
behaviour.
However imitation research is generally a well controlled procedure with both mother and baby
being filmed. Babies do not know or care about being observed and so their behaviour does not
change, which means there is no demand characteristics, which leads to strong validity.
Limitation: Difficult to replicate
• Koepke et al failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore’s findings.
• This is a problem in the scientific theory and may give evidence leading to a flaw in the theory.
However it can be argued that the replicated study lacked control or had errors in their procedure
that could've led to different results.
• Both of these examples lead to give evidence as to how hard it is to make controlled
observations of mother-infant interactions.
• Stages of attachment identified by Schaffer
• Multiple attachments and the role of the Father
1) STAGES OF ATTACHMENT: SCHAFFER
Stage 1 - Pre-Attachment Phase (Asocial stage)
• Behaviour to nonhuman and human objects is quite similar
• From 6 weeks the infant shows preference for Humans
• Demonstrated by babies being easier to calm with humans interaction and the baby responding
to faces by smiling
• (Birth - 3 months)
, Stage 2 - Indiscriminate Attachment
• From 3-7/8 months babies display more observable SOCIAL behaviour
• Preference is shown for adults but at the stage babies will usually accept cuddles or comfort
from any adult
• They do not usually show separation anxiety
• Indiscriminate behaviour is shown as their behaviour does not differ from adult to adult
Stage 3 - Discriminate Attachment
• From around 7/8 months majority of babies show anxiety to strangers
• Anxiety is seen when separated from one particular adult too
• 65% of cases this is the biological mother
• At this point the baby is said to have formed a specific attachment called the primary
attachment figure
Stage 4 - Multiple Attachments
• Shortly after the baby starts to show attachment behaviour to ONE adult they usually extend
this attachment
• They form multiple attachments with other adults, or children who they regularly spend time
with
• These attachments are called SECONDARY ATTACHMENTS and fear of strangers weakens
Evaluate Stages of Attachment
Limitation: Research into early stages of attachment is that the subjects are very young
babies.
Schaffer and Emerson describe the first few weeks of life as an asocial stage.
The problem with young babies is that they have poor co-ordination and are generally
pretty much immobile. It is therefore difficult to make any judgements about them based on
observations of their behaviour.
This does not mean that the child’s feelings and cognitions are not highly social but only
that evidence cannot be relied on. This is a limitation b/c it makes it difficult for researchers
to make judgements, any that are made may be unreliable.
Limitation: Conflicting Evidence on when Multiple Attachments are made:
There is no doubt that children become capable of multiple attachments but it is unclear
when.
Bowlby believes that most, if not all babies form attachments to a single main carer before
they become capable of developing multiple attachments.
However, other psychologists say otherwise; such as:
Van IJzendoorn whom states that babies who are put into environments with not just one
caregiver show multiple attachments from the onset.
Limitation because conflicting evidence makes it difficult to have a clear understanding of
what does happen.
-Attachment-
• Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of
attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father.
WHAT IS ATTACHMENT
Schaffer (1996):
“A long enduring, emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual. The object of the attachment
is generally someone (most often a parent) who returns the child’s feelings, creating a tie that can
be extremely powerful and emotionally laden in both directions.”
From an early age babies have meaningful social interactions with their carers. It is believed that
these interactions have important functions for the child social development.
One of the key interactions is their non-verbal communication. These interactions may form the
basis of attachment between infant and caregiver.
1) Reciprocity
Reciprocity is a description of how two people interact.
The mother-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both the infant and mother respond to
each others signals and each elicits a response from each other.
Feldman and Eidelman believe that babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ and signal that
they are ready for interaction. Mothers typically pick up on and respond to infant alternate
around 2/3 of the time.
Feldman says that from around three months this interaction tends to be increasingly
frequent and involves close attention to each others verbal signals and facial expressions.
Both the mother and child can initiate interactions.
Brazleton described this interaction as a rhythm which allows the infant and caregiver to
anticipate behaviour and respond appropriately. Sensitivity to an infants needs is a key
component to good attachment.
2) Interactional Synchrony
Is the coordinated rhythmic exchanged between carer and infant.
Feldman defined it as “the temporal co-ordination of micro-level social behaviour”.
Meltzoff and Moore (77)
• Observed the beginning of interactional synchrony in infants as young as two weeks old. An
adult displayed one of three facial gestures.
• The child’s response was filmed and identified by independent observers.
• An association was found between the gesture the adult had and the one that the baby had
displayed.
,Evaluation: Caregiver Interactions
1) Reciprocity
2) Interactional Synchrony
Limitation:
Research into caregiver interactions is limited b/c observations do not tell us the PURPOSE of
reciprocity or interactional synchrony.
Feldman says that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe the behaviours that occur at the
same time. They can be reliably observed, but this may not be particularly useful as it does not tell
us their purpose.
However evidence is given for how interactional synchrony and reciprocity can lead to mother-
infant attachment;
Isabella et al. Observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony.
• The research also assed the quality of the infant-mother attachment.
• The found: High levels of synchrony led to high quality attachment between the infant and
mother.
• This shows that the purpose of synchrony may be to develop the attachment
Research Methods Limitations of infant-caregiver research:
It is difficult to measure infants in research as they use their faces frequently. Through general
activity their faces move and it is difficult to judge between general movement and imitating
behaviour.
However imitation research is generally a well controlled procedure with both mother and baby
being filmed. Babies do not know or care about being observed and so their behaviour does not
change, which means there is no demand characteristics, which leads to strong validity.
Limitation: Difficult to replicate
• Koepke et al failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore’s findings.
• This is a problem in the scientific theory and may give evidence leading to a flaw in the theory.
However it can be argued that the replicated study lacked control or had errors in their procedure
that could've led to different results.
• Both of these examples lead to give evidence as to how hard it is to make controlled
observations of mother-infant interactions.
• Stages of attachment identified by Schaffer
• Multiple attachments and the role of the Father
1) STAGES OF ATTACHMENT: SCHAFFER
Stage 1 - Pre-Attachment Phase (Asocial stage)
• Behaviour to nonhuman and human objects is quite similar
• From 6 weeks the infant shows preference for Humans
• Demonstrated by babies being easier to calm with humans interaction and the baby responding
to faces by smiling
• (Birth - 3 months)
, Stage 2 - Indiscriminate Attachment
• From 3-7/8 months babies display more observable SOCIAL behaviour
• Preference is shown for adults but at the stage babies will usually accept cuddles or comfort
from any adult
• They do not usually show separation anxiety
• Indiscriminate behaviour is shown as their behaviour does not differ from adult to adult
Stage 3 - Discriminate Attachment
• From around 7/8 months majority of babies show anxiety to strangers
• Anxiety is seen when separated from one particular adult too
• 65% of cases this is the biological mother
• At this point the baby is said to have formed a specific attachment called the primary
attachment figure
Stage 4 - Multiple Attachments
• Shortly after the baby starts to show attachment behaviour to ONE adult they usually extend
this attachment
• They form multiple attachments with other adults, or children who they regularly spend time
with
• These attachments are called SECONDARY ATTACHMENTS and fear of strangers weakens
Evaluate Stages of Attachment
Limitation: Research into early stages of attachment is that the subjects are very young
babies.
Schaffer and Emerson describe the first few weeks of life as an asocial stage.
The problem with young babies is that they have poor co-ordination and are generally
pretty much immobile. It is therefore difficult to make any judgements about them based on
observations of their behaviour.
This does not mean that the child’s feelings and cognitions are not highly social but only
that evidence cannot be relied on. This is a limitation b/c it makes it difficult for researchers
to make judgements, any that are made may be unreliable.
Limitation: Conflicting Evidence on when Multiple Attachments are made:
There is no doubt that children become capable of multiple attachments but it is unclear
when.
Bowlby believes that most, if not all babies form attachments to a single main carer before
they become capable of developing multiple attachments.
However, other psychologists say otherwise; such as:
Van IJzendoorn whom states that babies who are put into environments with not just one
caregiver show multiple attachments from the onset.
Limitation because conflicting evidence makes it difficult to have a clear understanding of
what does happen.
