MCAT PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY EXAM

MCAT PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY EXAM Social stratification - ANSWER Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. In the United States, it is perfectly clear that some groups have greater status, power, and wealth than other groups. These differences are what led to social stratification Class consciousness - ANSWER awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially (in Marxist terms) as it relates to the class struggle. Instrumental support - ANSWER instrumental support refers to the various types of tangible help that others may provide (e.g., help with childcare/housekeeping, provision of transportation or money). Symbolic interactionism - ANSWER Symbolic meaning and interpretation allow for sustained interaction Antecedent predisposition - ANSWER An antecedent is a stimulus that cues an organism to perform a learned behavior. When an organism perceives an antecedent stimulus, it behaves in a way that maximizes reinforcing consequences and minimizes punishing consequences. Antecedent stimuli that have been paired with reinforcing consequences activate centers of the brain involved in motivation,while antecedents that have been paired with punishing consequences activate brain centers involved in fear Lazarus theory of emotion - ANSWER Interpretation happens before arousal or emotion, and this interpretation can cause emotion. Since there is no evidence that any of the subjects experienced a physiological response to any of the stories, the Lazarus theory is the correct response. Fixed ratio vs variable ratio - ANSWER Fixed ratio is based on a set number of responses, intervals are based on timing Extinction burst - ANSWER When an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (meaning increase dramatically) - this is known as an extinction burst. Central executive - ANSWER Supervises cognitive process of memory Articulatory rehearsal component - ANSWER The Articulatory Rehearsal Component had minimal effect on the test since there was not enough time for rehearsal before the subject was required to repeat the digit string. Phonological Store - ANSWER The Phonological Store is being tested. It is believed that the phonological store capacity is around 7 Type I Error - ANSWER Incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis (false positive) Most knoweledgeable other - ANSWER it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept (Vygotsky theory) Door in the face phenomenon - ANSWER a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. Phonological loop, central executive, visuospatial sketchpad - ANSWER Model of working memory (Baddeley) The central executive is a flexible system responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It has the following functions: binding information from a number of sources into coherent episodes coordination of the slave systems shifting between tasks or retrieval strategies selective attention and inhibition The phonological loop (or "articulatory loop") as a whole deals with sound or phonological information. It consists of two parts: a short-term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are subject to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component (sometimes called the articulatory loop) that can revive the memory traces. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is this store that holds visual information for manipulation Procedural bias - ANSWER When researchers put some pressure (such as money reward) on participants. Overgeneralization - ANSWER Overgeneralization occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence Avoidant personality disorder - ANSWER Patients with avoidant personality disorder, like patients with schizoid personality disorder are also socially withdrawn. However, patients with avoidant personality disorder are withdrawn due to hypersensitivity to rejection rather than from indifference Schizoid personality disorder - ANSWER indifferent, aloof, withdrawn, and often preoccupied with fantasy and/or excessive daydreaming Antisocial personality disorder - ANSWER Patients with antisocial personality disorder have a deceitful attitude and show no remorse when abusing others Gender differentiation - ANSWER "Gender differentiation" is a social construct, the meaning of which includes social differences, value/attitude differences, and cultural differences. Biological differences are a part of sex differentiation, not gender differentiation crit·i·cal the·o·ry - ANSWER a philosophical approach to culture, and especially to literature, that seeks to confront the social, historical, and ideological forces and structures that produce and constrain it. Synesthesia - ANSWER s a neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. In one common form of synesthesia, known as grapheme-color synesthesia or color-graphemic synesthesia, letters or numbers are perceived as inherently colored. Gender schema - ANSWER Gender schema refers to how people become "gendered", and how those stereotypes/whatever get perpetuated from generation to generation. Gender script - ANSWER Gender script refers usually to interactions between people, and how we "expect" people to act based on their "script" (a preset list of conventions that we ascribe to that gender). Gender Schema Theory: Parents encouraging their son to play with action figures and wear blue t-shirts, and avoid wearing dresses or playing with barbie dolls. Gender Script: Think "chivalry". Man helping a woman carry a heavy box, holding door open for her. Place theory (hearing) - ANSWER Place theory is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. High frequency sounds selectively vibrate the basilar membrane of the inner ear near the entrance port (the oval window). Lower frequencies travel further along the membrane before causing appreciable excitation of the membrane. Self handicapping - ANSWER Self-handicapping is a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem. Operationalization - ANSWER In research design, especially in psychology, social sciences, life sciences, and physics, operationalization is a process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon that is not directly measurable, though its existence is indicated by other phenomena Perceived behaviour control - ANSWER restraint/control over one's actions, related to how difficult or easy we believe a certain task to be Stroop effect - ANSWER the Stroop effect is a demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue", "green", or "red") is printed in a color that is not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color. parallel play - ANSWER Parallel play is a form of play in which children play adjacent to each other, but do not try to influence one another's behavior. Children usually play alone during parallel play but are interested in what other children are doing. This usually occurs after the first birthday. Internal validity - ANSWER In scientific research, internal validity is the extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted, which is determined by the degree to which a study minimizes systematic error (or 'bias'). It contrasts with external validity, the degree to which it is warranted to generalize results to other contexts. External validity - ANSWER External validity is the validity of generalized (causal) inferences in scientific research, usually based on experiments as experimental validity.In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Mathematical analysis of external validity concerns a determination of whether generalization across heterogeneous populations is feasible, and devising statistical and computational methods that produce valid generalizations. Ecological validity - ANSWER In research, the ecological validity of a study means that the methods, materials and setting of the study must approximate the real-world that is being examined. Me - Herbert Mead - ANSWER Me - what society thinks you should do I - ANSWER I - what you think is best for you Deterministic theory of development - ANSWER Those that focus on childhood influence (Freud and Skinner) Emotions and hemispheres - ANSWER Positive emotion - Left Negative - Right Projection - ANSWER Projection is more of a defense mechanism to protect your ego in a situation like really hating some guy. You justify your unpleasant feelings by rationalizing that it's actually him that hates you, so it's natural to reciprocate. Or like the computer example, your ego fears you may actually be incompetent, so you project those feelings onto your computer and blame it for being stupid and not working. Displacement - ANSWER Kicking dog in anger due to something else Halo efect - ANSWER Jun 14, 2016 - The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about his or her character. Essentially, your overall impression of a person ("He is nice!") impacts your evaluations of that person's specific traits ("He is also smart!"). The halo effect is a cognitive bias in which an observer's overall impression of a person, company, brand, or product influences the observer's feelings and thoughts about that entity's character or properties. It was named by psychologist Edward Thorndike in reference to a person being perceived as having a halo. Cost signaling theory - ANSWER Showing off of resources to appear as a better mate Interposition - ANSWER Constancy - ANSWER Somatosensation - ANSWER Vestibular sense - ANSWER for sense of balance and spatial orientation, from inner ear Semicircular canals - ANSWER 3 (posterior, lateral, anterior) at right angles to each other located in the inner ear, lines up to 3 axes. Endolymph movement sensed by canals to get strength of rotation Otolithic organs - ANSWER Utricle and siccule contain crystal movement to pull hair cells to convey spatial orientation to brain Diziness / vertigo - ANSWER Caused when endolymph does not stop moving even after one has stopped moving. Also, astronauts have no gravity causing utricle and siccule crystals to float, causing confusion about which way is up or down. Also affects scuba divers. Signal detection theory - ANSWER Decision making under situations of uncertainty, at what point are we able to detect a signal Signal detection theory - ANSWER d' / c - ANSWER strength of signal / strategy. types of strategy - ANSWER conservative (always say no), liberal (always say yes - can result in false alarms) Noise distribution and signal distribution - ANSWER Gestalt principles - ANSWER Gestalt principles explain why we perceive things the way we do. Similarity: items that are similar are grouped together. Pragnanz: reality is reduced to simplest form possible (Olympic ring example). Proxmity: objects that are close to one another are grouped together. Continuity: lines are seen as falling the smoothest path. Closure. Structure of the eye - ANSWER iris controls pupil, ciliary muscle controls lens shape Fovea - ANSWER filled with cones, lets us see with high levels of detail. the retina is red and causes red - eye effect in photos. red eye reduction fires two flashes, the first flash causes constriction of the pupil causing less reflection off of the retina ROYGBIV - ANSWER Violet = 400 nm, Red = 700 nm Retinal cells (photoreceptors) - ANSWER Rods and cones Rods - ANSWER located in the retina, take light and convert into neural impulse. 120 million rods, good for night vision, sensitive to light, found mostly in periphery of eyes // very sensitive to light, have a very slow recovery time, magnocellular pathway (motion) Cones - ANSWER 6-7 million cones / retina, responsible for color vision. 3 types: Red, green, blue. they are concentrated in the fovea (allows us to see fine details), have a fast recovery time, parvocellular pathway (form and color) Phototransduction cascade - ANSWER What occurs when light hits the retina. Steps: light turns a rod off (rod is normally on), causing bipolar cell to turn on, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which is connected to the optic nerve. Phototransduction cascade in rods - ANSWER light turns a rod off (rod is normally on), causing bipolar cell to turn on, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which is connected to the optic nerve. In rods, there are stacks of disks with proteins, including rhodopsin (photopsin in cones). In rhodopsin, there is cis-retinal. When light strikes cis-retinal, it becomes trans-retinal. This causes the rod to turn off and carry out the above cascade via transducin. Transducin breaks away from rhodopsin when trans retinal forms, and bods to phosphodiesterase. This converts cyclic GMP to GMP. This prevents sodium channels from being open and causing hyperpolarization of the cell (sodium leaves cell and does not enter causing increased negative potential) Visual field processing - ANSWER temporal side does not cross optic chiasm. all information from right visual field goes to left side of brain, all visual information from left visual field goes to right side of brain. If you're split-brained, you won't recognize written words in your left visual field. - ANSWER This is because language information is processed in the left brain (Wernicke and Broca's areas); in split brained patients the corpus callosum is severed causing information unable to cross over from right side to left side. Trichromatic theory of color vision - ANSWER 3 types of cones (R, G, B) exist and allow us to see color by activating a specific type of cone) Parvocellular pathway - ANSWER used for spatial resolution (cones) Magnocellular pathway - ANSWER used for temporal resolution (rods) Parallel processing - ANSWER ability to see the color, form, and motion of an object at the same time using both the parvo and magno pathways Audition - ANSWER How a hair cell responds to a pressurized sound wave Place Theory - ANSWER Lower frequencies travel further in the ear (cochlea). In base of cochlea, higher frequencies cause activation while in apex of cochlea lower frequencies cause activation Ear anatomy - ANSWER auditory canal - eardrum - MIS (ear bones) - oval window - fluid in cochlea is pushed - circular window - auditory nerve. Organ of Corti - ANSWER located in cochlea, contains the basilar membrane and tectorial brain, prevents fluid from reaching elliptical oval when flowing back from the cochlea. Also contains hair cells which vibrate. vibration results to opening of potassium gates causing nerve impulse to brain Parts of ear - ANSWER outer: auditory canal + eardrum, middle: bones, oval and circular window, inner: cochlea etc somatosensory homonculus - ANSWER map of body in the brain located in sensory strip (FMSPOT), each map of the homonculus corresponds to a part of the body propioception - ANSWER position and balance, based on contraction of muscles throughout the body, cognitive kinesthesia - ANSWER movement of body, behavioral awareness of body movement nociception - ANSWER sensation of pain thermoception - ANSWER sensation of temperature, TrpV1 receptor, also sensitive to pain, heat causes conformational change of the protein. pain (such as prick) causes cells to break up and binding of ligands to TrpV1 receptor, also causing nerve impulse. 3 types of fibers exist connected to TrpV1: fast, medium, slow. 3 types of fibers causing thermoception and nociception - ANSWER Fast: myelinated, large diameter (a-Beta fibers), convey information quickly. Medium: a-Delta fibers, convey information less fast, Slow: slow diameter, c fibers unmyelinated. Hot stove: fast fiber causes movement of hand, then a delta fiber causes pain, then c causes lingering pain. capcacin also binds to TrpV1 receptors. pheromones - ANSWER specialized olfactory cues, induce a response in other animals to trigger an innate response. important in mating, fighting of animals, particularly insects. They are not perceived consciously, information travels to the amygdala in the temporal lobe to exert a subconscious influence on behaviors, such as aggression and sexual behavior. olfactory epithelium - ANSWER region of head dealing with smell, separated from brain with cribiform plate. extension from brain is olfactory bulb (cranial nerve), sends projection of nerves into olfalctory epithelium. glomerulus - ANSWER designation point in the olfactory buble corresponding to a particular smell mitral/tufted cell - ANSWER connected to a glomerulus, which connects to the brain GPCRs - ANSWER located in the olfactory epithelium. when GPCR activated, G protein hydrolyzed leading to cascade and ion channel opening causing action potential. also found in taste buds 5 tastes - ANSWER bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (glutamate) taste buds - ANSWER 3 types, all taste buds can recognize any of the 5 tastes. labeled lines model - ANSWER each cell from taste bud has its own neuron and mapping to gustatory cortex G protein coupled receptors - ANSWER when ligand binds, G protein dissociates from receptor and causes opening of ion channels, leading to depolarization and ion channel. only for sweet, umami, bitter. sour/salty have conformational change of ion channels directly. olfactory pathway - ANSWER bypasses the thalamus, olfactory bulb projects directly to the olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe and amygdala / hippocampus. temporal lobe structures - ANSWER contains the hippocampus and amygdala, Wernicke's area (left side). Limbic system concerned with memory and emotion gustatory cortex - ANSWER located in frontal lobe Consciousness - ANSWER awareness of our selves and our environment, can be affected by drugs, etc. Ranges from alertness to sleep. Types of consciousness - ANSWER Alertness / Daydreaming / Meditation / Drowsiness / Deep Meditation / Sleep EEG - ANSWER measures brain waves alpha waves - ANSWER 8-13hz, in daydreaming / drowsiness beta waves - ANSWER 12-30hz, waking consciousness and concentration delta waves - ANSWER .5-2Hz (stage 3) theta waves - ANSWER 4-7 waves light sleep Stages of sleep - ANSWER First 3 are NREM, last is REM N1 stage - ANSWER between sleep and wakefulness, theta waves, hypnagogic hallucinations, tetris effect, feeling of falling (hypnic jerks) N2 stage - ANSWER more theta waves, sleep spindles, k complexes. some believe sleep spindles are used to decrease arousal (prevent waking up due to loud noises). N3 stage - ANSWER last NREM stage, called slow wave stage, has delta waves, associated with walking and talking in sleep REM sleep - ANSWER rapid eye movement, most dreaming occurs here, paralyzed, also called paradoxical sleep (brain active, but body is not doing it) Sleep cycle - ANSWER 90 minutes (4 stages --> N1,N2,N3,N2,REM). More REM sleep occurs later during the night. Circadian rhythms - ANSWER 24 hour biological clock, cued by daylight. also change as one ages. Dreams - ANSWER last 5 - 20minutes, occur in REM sleep, less activity of prefrontal cortex causing illogical scenarios. Freud Theory - ANSWER dreams are unconscious thoughts and desires that should be interpretered Evolutionary Theory - ANSWER threat simulation, problem solving, no purpose Other theories - ANSWER -Dreams used to maintain flexibility, preserve and develop neural pathways, used to consolidate memories Consolidation - ANSWER -Used to consolidate memories Freud Iceberg - ANSWER Latent and manifest content. Manifest content is literal content, latent content is hidden meaning Activation Synthesis - ANSWER Brain activity in brainstem (activation) interpreted by cerebral cortex (synthesis). Opposite of Freud Theory, states that dreams are simply nonsense electrical impulses that are being interpreted Sleep deprivation - ANSWER irritability, poor memory, can risk of obesity, depression Insomnia - ANSWER persistent trouble falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy - ANSWER 1/2000 people, spontaneous fits of intense sleep Sleep apnea - ANSWER 1/20 people, people do not breath, wake up, prevents N3 sleep due to waking up to breath Sleepwalking/Talking - ANSWER mostly genetic, N3 sleep stage, occur more in children as children experience more N3 sleep Apnea - ANSWER block of airflow Obstructive sleep apnea - ANSWER due to obstruction in airway / problem with airway (not brain-related) Central sleep apnea - ANSWER apneas without obstructions, indicating a neuronal problem; problem with brain's control system for ventilation Hypoventilation - ANSWER buildup of CO2, problem with lungs / chest wall, medications, obesity Hypnosis - ANSWER person must be open to suggestion, alpha waves increase (daydreaming/drowsiness), can be used to control pain, retrieve memories Meditation - ANSWER focused or unfocused, leads to alpha waves (beginner), theta waves (expert), leads to increased attentional control 4 groups of psychoactive drugs - ANSWER depressants (lower CNS, lower BP, lower processing speed, include barbiturates and tranquilizers and benzodiazapines and alcohol), stimulants (increase CNS, heart rate, BP, alertness, include caffeine), hallucinogens (also called psychedelics, caused distotorted perceptions and sensations, mood swings), opiates (decrease CNS, heart rate, BP, and are analgesics) Benzodiazapines - ANSWER GABA mimic (cause inhibition) Stimulants - ANSWER caffeine: Increased energy nicotine: increased rate, BP, decrease appetite cocaine: dopamine, serotoning, and norepinephrine meth: increased dopamine, only 8 hours, highly effective Hallucinogens - ANSWER cause hallucinogens ecstasy: both a stimulant and hallucinogen; causes dehydration, etc, increased dopamine and serotonin LSD: effects serotonin, visual hallucinogens marijuana: THC causes higher perceptual sensitivity, decreases inhibition, motor coordination, and perceptual skills PTSD treatment / medical marijuana allows memory retrieval in a new context Routes of entry - ANSWER Oral, inhalation, injection Oral: slowest route, has to get absorbed through GI tract Inhalation: faster (<10sec) Injection: fastest route, dangerous Transdermal: through skin (e.g., patches) Intramuscular activity: Into muscles, can be fast or slow depending on location Faster route of entry cause more addiction dopamine - ANSWER produced in ventral tegmental area (VTA), sent to amygdala (emotions), nucleus accumbens (controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (controls attention and planning), and hippocampus (memory formation) called mesolimbic pathway / reward circuit leads to positive emotions; each part of the reward circuit will respond to increase the behavior causing dopamine serotonin decreases when reward circuit activated tolerance - ANSWER dopamine receptors in neuron disappear / downregulated, so more drugs needed to achieve same effects withdrawal - ANSWER substance use disorder - ANSWER drug impairs school, work, or home life. Drug addiction treatment - ANSWER is both physiological and psychological 1. Detox 2. Motivational interviewing 3. CBT 4. 12 step programs (Acceptance, Surrender, Active involvement in meetings etc) Exchange theory - ANSWER Social exchange theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. exogenous cues - ANSWER bright colors, loud noises, pop-out effect (do not need to have background knowledge to understand) endogenous causes - ANSWER require internal knowledge to process / draw your attention to (e.g.,, cocktail party effect - someone says your name across the room) inattentional blindness - ANSWER neglecting to see things because your attention is direct somewhere else change blindness - ANSWER when we fail to see change in two states (e.g,. failure to see someone got a haircut); e.g., ask someone directions and change the person while looking at map selective attention - ANSWER ability to focus on something even though many different stimuli present 3 major theories of selective attention - ANSWER Broadbent early selection theory - ANSWER 1. all sensory information goes to sensory register. 2. Selective filter then occurs to filter out selective information (only what you are attending to) 3. Perceptual processes (assign meanings) 4. Other cognitive processes problem: doesn't explain cocktail party effect Deutsch and Deutsch Late Selection theory - ANSWER 1. sensory register 2. perceptual processes 3. selective filter 4. other cognitive processes Treisman's Attentuation Theory - ANSWER 1. Sensory register 2. Attentuator (instead of complete filter) 3. Perceptual processes 4. Other cognitive processes Priming - ANSWER exposure to one stimulus effects perception of new stimuli (e.g., exposure to certain words) Spotlight model of attention - ANSWER flashlight is where attention is resource model of attention - ANSWER we have limited resources to devote for attention Things that affecting multitasking - ANSWER 1. Task similarity 2. Task difficulty 3. Practice Informational processing model - ANSWER humans are like computers (input, output) Sensory memory - ANSWER different types of senses are encoded here, mostly iconic and echoic. iconic lasts <.5s, echoic lasts 3-4 seconds Working memory - ANSWER what you are thinking of right now, short term memory. seven plus or minus two rule (depends on age, etc). This is why phone digits were originally 7 digits long. visuo-spatial sketchpad - ANSWER part of working memory phonological loop - ANSWER part of working memory central executive - ANSWER coordinates working memory components episodic buffer - ANSWER connects to long term memory (part of working memory) long term memory - ANSWER explicit (declarative) and implicit (nondeclarative) semantic memory - ANSWER explicit memory, words, etc episodic memory - ANSWER explicit memory, things that happened to you procedural memory - ANSWER implicit memory priming - ANSWER implicit memory encoding strategies - ANSWER used to move information from working memory to long term memory, different strategies to do so rote rehearsal - ANSWER saying same thing over and over again (first of the encoding strategies); least effective chunking - ANSWER grouping information into meaningful units mnemonic aids - ANSWER imagery, Pegword (verbal anchors), method of loci (location anchors), acronoyms (e.g., HOMES) self-referencing - ANSWER thinking of how new information relates to you; similar to preparing to teach spacing - ANSWER how you structure studying; instead of cramming spacing out studying is better retrieval cues - ANSWER priming context state-dependence (e.g., mood, intoxication) types of retrieval - ANSWER free recall, cued recall, and recognition: written in order of difficulty primacy effects - ANSWER we remember first few words in the list recency effects - ANSWER we remember last few words in the list serial position effect - ANSWER reconstructed memory - ANSWER whenever we remember something, it changes in our memory and we remember it slightly differently source monitoring - ANSWER keeping track of where information in memory came from flashbulb memories - ANSWER tA flashbulb memory is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard. Long term potentiation - ANSWER example of synaptic plasticity; postsynaptic potential increases over time to create a stronger synapse; the physiological mechanism by which learning occurs equal levels of presynaptic stimulation cause increases in postsynaptic potential Ebbinghaus - ANSWER studied decay of memories Relearning - ANSWER (savings); relearning is fast than learning from scratch retroactive interference - ANSWER new information affects past learning (e.g getting a new address will affect ability to remember old information) proactive interference - ANSWER past information affects new learning (e.g, you remember old password but not new password) Aging and memory - ANSWER implict / procedural memory stays constant, as does recognition semantic memory and crystallized intelligence improves (using knowledge and experience), better at emotional reasoning recall, episodic memories impaired, processing speed, divided attention are decreased at old ages Dementia - ANSWER decline of memory and cognitive function preventing daily life functions Alzheimer's - ANSWER causes decrease in size of prefrontal cortex, creates problems with attention, planning, semantic memory, abstract thinking, language, emotions, control of bodily functions due to buildup of amyloid plaques Korsakoff's Syndrome - ANSWER related to B1 (thiamine) deficiency, found in malnourished patients, eating disorders, or alcoholism. Thiamine is needed for converting carbs to glucose, needed for normal functioning of neurons. Leads to poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion, memory loss (Wernicke's encephalopathy) Korsakoff's Syndrome then results if Wernicke's Encepalopathy does not get treated: severe memory loss and confabulation (making up fake stories to fill in holes) encephalopathy - ANSWER A broad term for any brain disease that alters brain function or structure. semantic networks - ANSWER -can be hierarchical in nodes -spreading activation -can also be based on personal experience rather than hierarchical organization Piaget's stages of cognitive development (4) - ANSWER 1. Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence developed 2. Pre-Operational (2-7): pretend play, using of symbols, learning to talk, egocentrism,centration 3. Concrete operational (7-11): conservation developed, mathematics 4. Formal operational (12+): abstract reasoning skills and consequences understood, moral reasoning, problem solving Egocentrism - ANSWER occurs in pre-operational stage (2-7) Conservation - ANSWER Concrete operational Object permanence - ANSWER Sensorimotor stage Schemas - ANSWER frameworks to organize information; e.g., if we expect certain things to occur when entering a restaurant it is called a schema Assimilation - ANSWER bringing in new experiences into already existing schemas (SS = same schema) Accomodation - ANSWER modifying or creating new schemas based on experiences (CC = change / create) types of problems - ANSWER well-defined: have clear starting and ending points ill-define: ambiguous (e.g, how to live a happy life) Trial and error - ANSWER randomly guessing until something works (e.g., guessing a password blindly) Algorithm - ANSWER a logical step by step way to solve a problem Heuristic - ANSWER mental shortcuts used to solve a problem 1. Means end analysis (splitting a problem into smaller problems; work from current state to result state) 2. Working backwards Fixation - ANSWER getting stuck on a wrong approach Insight - ANSWER aha moments Incubation - ANSWER insight comes after a period of incubation Functional fixedness - ANSWER failing to see other ways to use a tool Availability heuristic - ANSWER examples that easily come to mind (e.g, risk of shark attack vs fireworks because you read more about shark attack) Representative heuristic - ANSWER we use matching prototypes to extrapolate new information Conjunction fallacy - ANSWER when people think the co-occurence of two things is more likely than just one (feminist bank teller) Overconfidence bias - ANSWER due to fluency (causes overestimation of ability) Belief perseverance - ANSWER ignore or rationalizing disconfirming facts Confirmation bias - ANSWER seek only confirming facts Framing - ANSWER how you present the decision (e.g. using different language when framing a problem and obtaining different results e.g, save 400 people vs kill 200 people) Intelligence - ANSWER mental quality that allows you to learn form experience, solve problems, and adapt General intelligence theory, Charles Spearman - ANSWER evidence: people good in verbal are good at math: G factor (scoring high in one area --> other areas) Triarchic theory of intelligences (Sternberg) - ANSWER -analytical (grades) -creativity -practical (ill defined problems) Emotional intelligence - ANSWER allows you to perceive emotions and relationships with others Fluid knowledge - ANSWER quick and abstract reasoning (decreases with age) Crystallized knowledge - ANSWER accumulated knowledge, based on fact, experience, prior learning, and accumulates as on ages (improves or stays same as age Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences - ANSWER words (linguistic intelligence) numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence) pictures (spatial intelligence) music (musical intelligence) self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence) a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence) a social experience (interpersonal intelligence) +naturalistic +existential all intelligences are independent (one does not affect another) Theory of primary abilities, LL Thurnstone - ANSWER 7 factor theory; but scores tend to vary together Cognitive dissonance - ANSWER sense of discomfort when there is an difference between attitude and behavior. e.g., a smoker: smokes, but also has the attitude that smoking leads to cancer 4 possible responses: 1. Modify cognitions (e.g,. tells himself they don't smoke that much) 2. Trivialize (e.g,. saying evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer) 3. Adding more cognitions: I exercise so much that smoking doesn't matter 4. Denying cognitions: no evidence smoking and cancer are linked people strive for harmony between thoughts and actions, when they don't align there is a problem Nativist theory of language acquisition - ANSWER suggests that we are born with something in our genes that allows us to learn language, proposes that there is a theoretical language acquisition device (LAD) in our brains that is responsible for learning a language the same way the hypothalamus is used to maintain body temperature. Proposed by Chomsky; critical / sensitive period Aphasia - ANSWER a disorder that causes problems with language; usually due to left hemisphere damage (e.g., Wernicke's aphasia causes poor comprehension, and Broca's aphasia - people have trouble forming language but can easily understand others). Universal grammar - ANSWER suggested by the nativist theory, says grammar is in our genetics and is shared across differing languages learning theory of language acquisition / behavioral theory - ANSWER suggests that children learn a language just as they would learn to ride a bike; through repetition and reinforcement (e.g,. correct vocalizations leads to positive reinforcement) interactionist approach - ANSWER is a sociocultural theory, combines ideas from sociology and biology to explain how language develops. Children learn a language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them; advocated by Vygotsky Broca's area - ANSWER left frontal lobe; causes broken speech Wernicke's area - ANSWER temporal lobe; understanding and also causes jumbled speech JUMBLED speech!!! contralateral organization - ANSWER refers to how objects in left visual field are processed with right brain. In split brained patients, this will cause language issues when trying to name objects. Language and cognition - ANSWER universalism: thoughts dictate language, etc universalism - ANSWER thoughts determines language Piaget's theory and language - ANSWER thought influences language (Piaget) Vygotsky theory of language - ANSWER language and thought are independent of each other; Vygotsky advocates through interaction of adults and children to learn language Weak linguistic determinism - ANSWER language influences thought, also called Whorfian hypothesis Strong linguistic determinism - ANSWER language determines thought; opposite of universalism limbic system (4 components) and emotion - ANSWER hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus; 4 structures of the limbic system that are on top of the brain stem. Thalamus functions as a sensory relay station for sense (except smell) Amygdala (aggression center). Hippocampus (forms memories; helps convert STM to LTM). Hypothalaus (below the thalamus, regulates ANS) Hemispheres and Emotions - ANSWER + and isolative- left hemisphere - and sociable- right hemisphere Three components of emotion - ANSWER cognitive physiological behavioral changes Universal emotions - ANSWER Fear Anger Happiness Disgust Surprise Sadness Theories of emotion - ANSWER James Lange Cannon Bard Schacter Singer Lazarus Aversive conditioning - ANSWER noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished, as the use of nausea-inducing drugs in the treatment of alcoholism. fixed-interval schedule - ANSWER is a schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has diathesis-stress model - ANSWER a person's genetic or biological vulnerability to a mental illness; physical or emotional stress, or something that causes negative effects on a person; and protective factors, which help keep a person from developing a mental illness. Beck's cognitive model - ANSWER Beck's main argument was that depression was instituted by one's view of oneself, instead of one having a negative view of oneself due to depression. Counterconditioning - ANSWER Counterconditioning (also called stimulus substitution) is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus.[1] For example, when training a dog, a person would create a positive response by petting or calming the dog, when the dog reacts anxiously or nervously to a stimulus. Therefore this will associate the positive response with the stimulus.[2] ethnicity - ANSWER based on culture and ancestry race - ANSWER based on physical characteristics anomie - ANSWER lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group. labeling theory - ANSWER Labeling theory is the theory of how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping. Labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent to an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. Lazarus theory of stress - ANSWER 2 stages of appraisal of stress: 1. Identifying the stressor and seeing if it affects you (irrelevnt, benign or stressful) 2. Identifying the way the stress can be managed or mitigated or if one can even respond to it Categories of stressors - ANSWER 1. significant life changes 2. catastrophes 3. daily hassles 4. ambient stressors (global; e.g., pollution, noise, smog, hard to control) Learned helplesness - ANSWER a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression. managing stress - ANSWER perceived control, optimism, social support, exercise, meditation, cognitive flexibility Ethnography - ANSWER Ethnography, simply stated, is the study of people in their own environment through the use of methods such as participant observation and face-to-face interviewing. Organization of Nervous System - ANSWER Central: Brain and Spinal Cord Peripheral: Cranial and Spinal nerves Motor Unit - ANSWER lower motor neuron synapses at a neuromuscular junction at skeletal muscle cells, originate from spinal cord and brain upper motor neurons control lower motor neurons, originate in the brain and synapse with lower motor neuron, cross over to other side of body; called corticospinal tract together with lower motor neuron if goes to spine; or called corticobulbar tract if the upper motor neurons synapse with cranial nerves. upper motor neurons originate in the cortex. spinal nerve control limbs, cranial nerves control muscles in head and neck area Muscle Stretch Reflex - ANSWER Afferent: stimulus / somatosensory neurons, form an excitatory synapse in spinal cord Efferent: response, lower motor neurons Both occur on same side in knee jerk reflex. Does not use brain / cerebrum Autonomic nervous system - ANSWER Efferent neurons synapse in smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands. Parasympathetic: long first neuron (preganglionic), short second neuron Sympathetic: short first neuron (preganglionic), long second neuron Gray matter - ANSWER contains neuron somas. In brain, gray matter makes up the cerebral cortex while white matter has inner nuclei. White matter - ANSWER contain myelinated axons Babinski / plantar - ANSWER flexing of toes when bottom of foot scraped Somatosensory tracts - ANSWER position, vibration, fine touch, pain, temperature, and gross touch other side of brain receives the nerve impulse (e.g, pain on right causes left side of brain lobes - ANSWER frontal (contains motor and prefrontal cortex, Broca's area) parietal lobe (contains somatosensory cortex, taste) occipital lobe (sight) temporal lobe (ear, Wernicke's area, smell) contralateral control - ANSWER left side of brain controls left side of body, vice versa doesn't apply for smell Brainstem - ANSWER medulla pons controls heartbeat, breathing, serves as a crossover point for nerves Reticular formation - ANSWER acts as a filter, important for arousal / sleep wave cycle Thalamus - ANSWER acts as a relay station for signals, except smell Cerebellum - ANSWER extends around brainstem, used for controlling voluntary movement. the cortex also controls movement. cerebellum is affected by alcohol requires motor plan, position sense information, and feedback Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - ANSWER Glycine GABA Excitatory - ANSWER Glutamate Other neurotransmitters - ANSWER Dopamine Serotonin Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Modern ways to study the brain - ANSWER 1. Structure (CAT / CT) - uses xray MRI - uses radio waves 2. Function EEG MEG Combined: fMRI; neurons that fire more require more oxygen and have more oxygen uptake PET: glucose injected; more active cells take up more radiolabeled glucose agoraphobia - ANSWER fear of open spaces, being in crowds, being alone because a belief that escape is not available positivism - ANSWER a philosophical system that holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof, and that therefore rejects metaphysics and theism. sensation - ANSWER conversion of physical stimuli into neurological symptoms perception - ANSWER processing of sensory information to make significance of it bipolar I vs II - ANSWER II involves hypomania (no manic episodes) uttricle and saccule vs semicircular - ANSWER linear vs rotational acceleration dyssomnia - ANSWER error in the amount or timing of sleep parasomnia - ANSWER odd behavior during sleep arcuate fasciculus - ANSWER connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas; damage results in conduction aphasia (inability to repeat words) general adaptation disorder stages - ANSWER alarm, resistance, and exhaustion Latell - ANSWER all of us have 16 traits Allport - ANSWER 4500 traits (caardinal, central, secondary) Eysneck - ANSWER 3 dimensions; extraversion, neuroticism, and psychotism (everyone has some degree of first 2) somatic and conversion disorder - ANSWER somatic creates unexplainable symptoms, conversion creates neurological symptoms incidence - ANSWER new cases / population at risk prevalence - ANSWER number of cases / total population conformity types - ANSWER "peer pressure": informative influence normative influence informative influence - ANSWER assume group is correct and want to be correct with them normative influence - ANSWER want to be liked by the group / avoid social rejection; we might not privately conform but we will publically conform private and public conformity - ANSWER group polarization - ANSWER confirmation bias - ANSWER groupthink - ANSWER want to maintain harmony among the group; first suggestion given by a leader is usually adopted conformity vs obedience - ANSWER conformity: peer pressure obedience: following orders internalization - ANSWER public vs private conformity; if we internalize we actually believe it Asch line experiments - ANSWER everyone gives right answer; but then confederates start to give wrong answers. the person will say what is wrong even though they want to say the right answer due to conformity. in presence of wrong answer / group, wrong answer was given more times than in isolation. INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE. the task was to judge the length of 2 lines and match them. People who did not conform were either confident or not confident. Problems: all male undergraduates, same university, no ecological validity (judging length of line =/= real life) and demand characteristics (subjects do what experimenter does) Solomon Asch - ANSWER part of Gestalt psychology; need to see social acts in their setting and not in isolation. migrated to US during Holocaust; so wanted to study conformity Milgram - ANSWER studied obedience, Holocaust; everyone said they were "just following orders" so he wanted to study if Americans could do the same Milgram Experiment - ANSWER had a learner and a teacher (one of them was a confederate). the teacher was always the subject. the teacher was told to give word pairs. The teacher was told to give shocks for wrong answers, even though the shocks weren't given. The learner started screaming as shocks increased. After this, the learner stayed silent. The teacher stopped and asked, but the experimenter kept saying go on. 65% shocked all the way to 450 V, though they did protest as they increased voltage. Experiment was done at Yale. study was unethical. Just world phenomenon - ANSWER good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people (justification for shocks). Relates to self serving bias and fundamental attribution error. Zimbardo prison experiment / Stanford prison experiment - ANSWER studied obedience. Random experiments of prisoners and guards. They were all arrested and given numbers, mattresses, cells,etc. The guards were told not to give physical violence, and told to intimidate the prisoners. Day 1: nothing 2: prisoners rebelled, and guards fought back. fire extinguishers used against them use of solitary confinement mental breakdowns of prisoners 3: hunger strike told to repeat numbers basic amenities removed (toilets) 4-5: continued escalation 6: Maslach visits prisons, told Zimbardo she would break up with him if they didn't stop. 7: study stopped conformity factors - ANSWER -group size (3-5) -unanimous (Asch) -observed behavior -group status -group cohesion -public response -prior commitments -insecurity feelings Diffusion of responsibility - ANSWER relates to bystander effect, more people causes less response because people think they have less responsibility because of more people Agents of socialization - ANSWER lifelong process through which we learn norms, etc. culture transmission -family -mass media -peers -schools and hidden curriculum culture transmission vs diffusion - ANSWER Cultural transmission has to do with passing down culture from one generation to the next. Cultural diffusion - Transfer of elements of a culture to another. For instance, anime originated in Japan but is now popular around the world. social loafing and social facilitation (only easy tasks) - ANSWER mediating variable - ANSWER explains the relationship between independent and dependent variable moderating variable - ANSWER clarifies or influences the relationship confounding variable - ANSWER related to both dependent and independent variables but not noticed by the researchers 3 components of emotion - ANSWER -ABC model -Physiological, expressive displays, and subjective experiences Types of Study Validity - ANSWER Content validity addresses the match between test questions and the content or subject area they are intended to assess Face Validity refers to the extent to which a test or the questions on a test appear to measure a particular construct as viewed by laypersons, clients, examinees, test users, the public, or other stakeholders Curricular Validity is the extent to which the content of the test matches the objectives of a specific curriculum as it is formally described. Criterion-related validity looks at the relationship between a test score and an outcome. For example, SAT™ scores are used to determine whether a student will be successful in college. Construct validity Ecological External Internal Subjective bias - ANSWER present in studies where subjects self report or fill out surveys approach - approach conflict - ANSWER 2 choices, both are favorable avoidance - avoidance - ANSWER 2 choices, both negative approach - avoidanct - ANSWER 1 goal, both repelled to and attracted to double approach-avoidance - ANSWER 2 goals, each has positive and negatives norms - ANSWER unwritten rules for how someone should behave in a situation types of norms - ANSWER folkways, mores, taboos, laws folkways - ANSWER mildest type of norm, common rules or manners (e.g., opening door for someone, saying thank you). if you don't ascribe to a folkway no serious consequence mores - ANSWER based in moral values or beliefs, produce strong reactions (such as lying) law - ANSWER more formal and consistent punishments taboos - ANSWER completely wrong, punishable by law, examples are cannibalism or incest deviance - ANSWER when a norm is violated, not necessarily bad. e.g, vegetarian is deviance but not bad symbolic interaction - ANSWER society is a product of everyday interactions among individuals theory of differential association - ANSWER deviance is due to association with others who are deviant. emphasis is on relationships with others. labeling theory - ANSWER labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent to an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. e.g, streoid use depends on context (could be medically necessary, but seen as deviant in sports teams) primary deviance: not much pushback from society or group secondary deviance: severe negative consequence, may result in more deviance strain theory - ANSWER if someone cannot attain a goal, they are pushed towards deviance to get to that goal. deviance arises when there is a conflict between societal expectations and the socially condoned methods of achieving those expectations collective behavior - ANSWER short social interactions, differs from group behavior. has looser norms and more open. 3 types of collective behavior - ANSWER fads, mass hysteria and riots fads - ANSWER very short amount of time, reach many groups of people. e.g., cinnamon challenge mass hysteria - ANSWER e.g, anthrax: over 2000+ false anthrax cases riots - ANSWER large groups of people performing deviant behavior, results in vandalism and chaos Xenocentrism vs Ethnocentrism - ANSWER Xenocentrism indicates a preference for the products, styles, or ideas of someone else's culture rather than of one's own. Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one's own race and a marked preference for one's own culture and its products. Bandura - ANSWER Bobo doll experiment Attachment Styles - ANSWER Persuasion - ANSWER -Message characteristics -Target characteristics Elaboration likelihood model - ANSWER central vs peripheral routes: 3 stages 1. We filter the speech through our perceptual processes; if we are interested: central route. Else, peripheral route. 2. Consider message/source: central route focuses on message, while peripheral focuses on other superficial characteristics 3. Central route causes lasting change, peripheral causes temporary change. Reciprocal determinism - ANSWER cognition affects environment which affects behavior Learned helplessness - ANSWER perceived lack of control causes generalized helpless behavior Tyranny of choice - ANSWER too many choices causes dissatisfaction with choice that one makes. information overload causes decision paralysis (inability to make a decision) and increased regret Locus of control - ANSWER can be external or internal Self control / Marshmallow Test - ANSWER one needs self control to wait 15 minutes to get another marshmallow. more self control causes more positive life outcomes. Ego depletion: self control can be used up soon. Signal detection theory - ANSWER Used to predict when and how a signal is recognized when there are many stimuli present. Four possibilities: hit, miss, false positive, accurate rejection Psychophysics - ANSWER Psychological study of the relationship between a physical stimulus and mental response Exteroreceptors - ANSWER Interoreceptors - ANSWER Propioreceptors - ANSWER Pathway of vision - ANSWER Cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm Rods - ANSWER Sense light and dark, are more sensitive Cones - ANSWER Sense color, are less sensitive Rhodopsin - ANSWER GPCR responsible for light reception, light converts cis retinal to trans retinal Binocular field of fision - ANSWER Feature detection theory - ANSWER Iris vs Ciliary muscles - ANSWER Pathway of hearing - ANSWER Ear canal, tympanic membrane, ear bones, oval window, cochlear fluid/hair cells, brainstem (8th optic nerve) Taste - ANSWER 4th optic nerve Smell - ANSWER 1st optic nerve Kinesthetic sense - ANSWER Vestibular sense - ANSWER Bottom up processing - ANSWER Begins with new sensory reception Top-down processing - ANSWER More general processing based on past experience of sensory systems. The brain draws on this information to interpret new sensory information. Order of ear bones - ANSWER HAS Hammer, anvil, stapes Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development - ANSWER 1. Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence 2. Pre-operational (2-7): egocentrism 3. Concrete operational (7-11): conservation 4. Formal operational (12+) Nature vs. nurture - ANSWER Our cognitive development is a complicated interaction between our genetic predisposition (nature) and the environment (nurture) Frontal lobe - ANSWER Responsible for organization and planning Hippocampus - ANSWER Responsible for forming new memories Amygdala - ANSWER Responsible for emotion, alertness, motivation with the limbic system Representative heuristic - ANSWER Tendency to make judgments based on probablity of events occurring (e.g., we assume our birthday party will have a cake, not a salad because of our ideas about birthday parties) Availability heuristic - ANSWER We think based on what is fresh in our bind Belief perseverance - ANSWER Overconfidence - ANSWER IQ Test - ANSWER created by Wiliam Stern Sternberg - ANSWER Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Experiential Componential Contextual Reticular formation/ reticular activating system - ANSWER Controls levels of arousal Polysomonography (PSG) - ANSWER EOG EEG EMG Stages of Sleep - ANSWER Stage 1 - theta waves Stage 2- theta waves, k-complexes, sleep spindles Stage 3/4 - slow wave sleep (delta waves) REM Sleep - paradoxical sleep, dreams occur Sleep cycle - ANSWER 1 cycle = stages 1-4 and then REM sleep, deepest sleep occurs first and later cycles ave more REM sleep Melatonin - ANSWER secreted by the pineal gland REM rebound - ANSWER if one does not sleep well enough to reach REM sleep, the next night will be spent more in REM sleep Activation synthesis theory - ANSWER Physiological processes completed by the brain cause dreams during REM sleep Parasomnia - ANSWER abnormal actions during sleep (such as sleepwalking) Dyssomnia - ANSWER (interruption in the quality or timing of sleep) Irregular sleep-wake syndrome - ANSWER 2 theories of hyponosis - ANSWER Dissociation theory - patient reaches a divided state of consciousness Social influence theory - person under hypnosis is highly vulnerable to social influences and may so and do what the hyponotist expects without meaning to Dialectic behavioral therapy - ANSWER Mindfulness based stress reduction - ANSWER Drug addiction - ANSWER Reinforced by release of dopamine in circuits located in the brainstem and nucleus accumbens (pleasure central of the brain) 4 types of memory encoding - ANSWER Semantic Acoustic (echoic) Tactile Visual (iconic) Hippocampus - ANSWER Located in the temporal lobe and receives sensory information from the cortex Serial effect - ANSWER we are least likely to remember information in the middle of a list; primacy and recency effect Memorization methods - ANSWER Elaboration Chunking Depth processing Hierarchies 3 steps of memory storage - ANSWER Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory Summation - ANSWER Nodes become activated when adjacent neural signals are strong enough to reach a response threshold. The threshold is only reached after many signals are added together. Serial recall - ANSWER Recalling objects in a list in order Korsakoff's - ANSWER caused by B1 (thiamine) deficiency Misinformaiton effect - ANSWER False information can make people prone to creating false memories Source monitoring error - ANSWER If the source of a memory is forgotten this occurs 4 types of neural plasticity - ANSWER There are four types of neural plasticity: Compensatory masquerade- the use of a new cognitive process to carry out a task that previously depended on a cognitive process that used to be impaired. It is the process of the brain finding another way to accomplish something when the first (typical) method is ineffective. Cross-modal reassignment- the brain can adapt through the introduction of new inputs to an area of the brain that was previously lacking its main inputs. Map expansion- information processing of a particular region of the brain can be heightened by frequent exposure to stimulus/ new information. For example, the area of the brain that deals with mathematics (inferior temporal gyrus) would become heightened after taking a calculus class. Homologous area adaption- if the brain suffers damage to particular regions, sometimes it can shift the responsibilities of that area of the brain to another, undamaged area. This adaption is most active during the early stages of development. Infantile amnesia - ANSWER we can only form reliable memories above the age of 3 3 theories of language learning - ANSWER Leanring theory Nativist theory Interactionist Theory Broca's - ANSWER located in left frontal lobe, used to produce speech Wernicke's - ANSWER located in left temporal lobe, used to understand speech Anterograde vs retrograde amnesia - ANSWER Anteograde may involve hippocampal damage (cannot form new memories) Mental set - ANSWER Being fixated on answers that have been successful in the past Fixation - ANSWER faiure to see an issue from a new perspective 3 components of emotion - ANSWER Cognitive Behavioral Physiological Yerkes-Dodson Law - ANSWER people tend to perform at optimal levels when moderately emotionally stimulated 3 theories of emotion - ANSWER James-Lange theory: interpretation of solely a physiological response causes emotion Cannon-Bard theory: physiological response and cognitive response are independent Schacter-Singer: physiological response occurs first, but thinking about the situation causes emotion Limbic system - ANSWER Hippocampus Amygdala Hypothalamus Amygdala - ANSWER Amygdala is largely responsible for emotion, controls hypothalamus which controls physiological features of emotion such as heart rate, apetite Hypothalamus - ANSWER interacts with prefrontal cortex which controls decision making Sympathetic nervous system - ANSWER flight/fight response, activated endocrine glands Parasympathetic nervous system - ANSWER rest/relax, causes increase in stomach movements and decreased blood flow to skeletal muscles 3 types of stressors - ANSWER Cataclysmic Personal Daily stressors Fight or flight or rest and relax - ANSWER Fight or flight - causes norepinephrine and epinephrine release, which causes increase blood flow to muscles and release of glucose to blood stream Rest or relax (controlled by parasympathetic nervous system) causes stomach movements and decreased blood flow to skeletal muscles Reflex arc - ANSWER sets of neurons responsible for receiving reflexive nerve impulses 2 types of neurotransmitters - ANSWER Excitatory Inhibitory CNS vs PNS - ANSWER CNS = spinal cord and brain PNS = all outside nerve fibers, functions to send nerve impulses from our limbs to CNS for processing Forebrain - ANSWER cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalmus/limbic system. Responsible for thinking, logic, and emotion Midbrain - ANSWER creates dopamine Hindbrain - ANSWER cerebellum, pons, and medulla, used for bodily functions and sexual arousal fMRI/PET - ANSWER used to scan for brain functions MRI/CT - ANSWER used to study brain structures Types of neurotransmitters - ANSWER Endorphins Norepinephrine GABA Serotonin Acetylcholine Epinephrine Hypothalamus - ANSWER controls actions of endocrine system Adrenal gland - ANSWER releases adrenaline Pituitary gland - ANSWER controls growth and reproductive organs, also known as hyphophysis Thyroid - ANSWER regulates energy and metabolism Parathyroid gland - ANSWER controls PTH release, higher PTH release causes more Calcium release Pineal gland - ANSWER secretes melatonin Pancreas - ANSWER secretes digestive enzymes and insulin Epigenetics - ANSWER genes which modify expression based on enivornment, can be inherited Prenata development - ANSWER conception - zygote - blastocyst - embryo - fetus 5 stages of motor development - ANSWER Reflexive Rudimentary Fundamental Specialized Application 6 theories of personality - ANSWER Psychoanalytic Humanistic Trait Social cognitive - based on observational learning Biological Behaviorist - Trait vs state controversy - ANSWER Traits are preset consistently while state means personality characteristics that are unstab