Table of Contents
Tracy (2019) CH 3 – paradigmatic reflections and qualitative research theories.................3
Key territories and approaches of qualitative research................................................................3
Case study.......................................................................................................................................................3
Grounded theory............................................................................................................................................3
Ethnography and ethnography of communication........................................................................................3
Phenomenology..............................................................................................................................................3
Participatory action research..........................................................................................................................3
Narrative inquiry and autoethnography.........................................................................................................4
Arts‐based research (ABR)..............................................................................................................................4
Tracy (2019) CH 4 – Research design: sampling, research proposals, ethics, and IRB...........5
Planning the data collection: fieldwork, interviews, texts, and visuals.........................................5
Fieldwork and “participant witnessing”.........................................................................................................5
Interviews.......................................................................................................................................................5
The value of textual analysis and cultural studies..........................................................................................5
Visual and art-based material.........................................................................................................................5
Developing a sampling plan: who, what, where, how, and when.................................................6
Purposeful sampling.......................................................................................................................................6
Random samples and representative samples...............................................................................................6
Convenience/opportunistic samples..............................................................................................................6
Maximum variation samples..........................................................................................................................6
Snowball samples............................................................................................................................................6
Theoretical‐construct samples.......................................................................................................................6
Typical, extreme, deviant, and critical incident samples................................................................................7
Extreme instance or deviance sampling.........................................................................................................7
Critical incident sampling................................................................................................................................7
Ethics and institutional review boards (IRB).................................................................................8
Informed consent:..........................................................................................................................................8
Creating a research proposal........................................................................................................8
Ch 4 Sampling – Trochim..............................................................................................................9
Sampling terminology.....................................................................................................................................9
External validity..............................................................................................................................................9
Sampling methods........................................................................................................................................10
Sampling distribution....................................................................................................................................10
Sampling error..............................................................................................................................................11
Probability sampling procedures..................................................................................................................11
Ch 5 Introduction to Measurement............................................................................................15
Levels of measurement.................................................................................................................................15
Quality of measurement...............................................................................................................................15
Reliability......................................................................................................................................................15
Validity..........................................................................................................................................................16
Construct validity:.........................................................................................................................................17
Threats to construct validity.........................................................................................................................17
The social threats to construct validity.........................................................................................................18
CH 6: Scales, Tests, and Indexes – Trochim.................................................................................19
Scales............................................................................................................................................................19
Tests..............................................................................................................................................................20
Indexes..........................................................................................................................................................21
1
, Ch 7: Survey Research – Trochim................................................................................................22
Types of questionnaires:...............................................................................................................................22
Types of interviews:......................................................................................................................................22
Selecting the survey method........................................................................................................................22
Survey design................................................................................................................................................23
Interviews.....................................................................................................................................................25
CH 8 Introduction to design - Trochim........................................................................................27
Research design and causality......................................................................................................................27
Internal validity.............................................................................................................................................27
Threats to internal validity............................................................................................................................27
Developing a research design.......................................................................................................................28
Design notion................................................................................................................................................28
Types of designs............................................................................................................................................29
CH 9: Experimental Design – Trochim.........................................................................................30
Foundations of experimental design............................................................................................................30
Experimental design and threats to internal validity...................................................................................30
Classifying experimental designs..................................................................................................................31
Signal enhancing designs: factorial designs..................................................................................................31
Factorial design variations............................................................................................................................33
Noise reducing designs: randomized block designs.....................................................................................35
Hybrid designs: switching-replications experimental designs......................................................................36
Limitations of experimental design..............................................................................................................36
Ch 10 – Quasi-experimental design – Trochim............................................................................37
Non-equivalent groups design (NEGD).........................................................................................................37
Regression discontinuity design...................................................................................................................39
Other quasi-experimental designs................................................................................................................40
Notes from exam review class....................................................................................................43
Ch 11 – Introduction to data analysis..........................................................................................44
Threats to conclusion validity.......................................................................................................................44
Type 1 error:.................................................................................................................................................44
Type 2 error:.................................................................................................................................................44
Improving conclusion validity.......................................................................................................................44
Data preparation...........................................................................................................................................45
Descriptive statistics.....................................................................................................................................46
2
,Tracy (2019) CH 3 – paradigmatic reflections and
qualitative research theories
Key territories and approaches of qualitative research
Most practiced approaches in qualitative research: case study, grounded theory, ethnography,
phenomenology, participatory action research, personal narrative and autoethnography, and arts ‐based
approaches
Case study
- In‐depth contextual analyses of one or a few instances of a naturalistic phenomenon, such as a
person, an organization, a program, an event, a geographical location, or a decision.
- Common in law, psychology, urban-planning, and political science.
- Case studies have four primary uses: “(1) description, (2) hypothesis generation or theory
development, (3) hypothesis and theory testing, and (4) development of normative theory”
- Case study researchers use a variety of data collection methods – including interviews, participant
observation, and surveys – and analytic approaches – such as thick description, narrative,
discourse/process tracing, and grounded theory– to shed light on the case at hand.
Grounded theory
- The systematic “ground‐up” analysis of data with the aim of generating theory that explains some
context or phenomenon
- Researchers begin by collecting data, engaging in open line ‐by ‐line analysis, creating larger themes
from these data, and linking them together to create an emergent explanation or theory
Ethnography and ethnography of communication
- Long‐term immersion in a culture is a hallmark of ethnography
- As they write and describe people and cultures, ethnographers tend to live intimately beside and
among other cultural members.
- Ethnographers focus on a wide range of cultural aspects, including language use, rituals, ceremonies,
relationships, and artifacts
- Ethnography of communication (EOC) is an example, examines patterns, rules, and codes of culturally
distinctive speech communities
o Concerned with three main issues; linguistic rules used by participants, comparing messages
across different communication methods, how communication reveals norms of identity,
culture, or relationships.
Phenomenology
- Focused on describing the experiential essence of human experiences and capturing the present living
moment
- Any lived experience; such as shaking hands, illness, sexual arousal, bullying, or texting.
- It is suggested that because people give meaning to things they perceive in the world, the
phenomenological experience is subjective
- Many of today’s qualitative researchers using phenomenology consider the ways that power, history,
ideology, and the limits of text and language mediate access to direct experience
Case study = specific example eg Hilton
Phenomenology – guest service experience overall – something more abstract
Participatory action research
- Based upon the notion that researchers should work together with research participants to help them
address, understand, or improve local issues or dilemmas
- The goal of PAR is to combine the researcher’s theoretical knowledge and experience with practical
knowledge in the field to promote co‐ learning
3
, - PAR research is marked by shared ownership of research projects, community ‐based analysis of social
problems, and an orientation toward community action
- At the same time, PAR researchers tread a fine line between guiding research participants and
imposing their own opinion or methodology eg when studying indigenous communities, therefore
Community‐based participatory research (CBPR) advocates research in which subaltern and
marginalized communities take the lead. requires respect, rigorous incorporation of members’
input, creating results that directly help the community in need, and sensitivity
- Example: In West Bengal, India, Dutta and Dutta (2013) worked alongside community members to
highlight structural health inequalities stemming from a shortage of communication with the rural
poor.
Narrative inquiry and autoethnography
- Researchers view stories as fundamental to human experience, they construct and shape
- Autoethnography refers to the systematic study, analysis, and narrative description of one’s own
experiences, interactions, culture, and identity
- Gathered through fieldnotes, interviews, oral tales, blogs, letters, or autobiographies
- Many autoethnographies are marked by intersectionality, focusing on how intersecting identity
standpoints based on sexual orientation, gender identity, social class, ethnicity, religion, age, ability,
and education emerge as salient in our interactions, and how these subject positions impact one’s
privilege, marginalization, or vulnerability in life as lived
Arts‐based research (ABR)
- Incorporates aspects of the creative arts into the research study, emphasizing artistic practice as a
way of exploring, knowing, and representing
- Shows how images, contemplation, and aesthetic use of language can be particularly evocative,
experiential, moving, and/or disquieting.
- Arts‐based approaches can access emotion, tacit assumptions, and collective sensemaking. Especially
when participants are in the midst of tragedy or upset, they may be unable or unwilling to articulate
their situation with words
o For example, after drawing a picture in response to the prompt, “what does workplace
bullying feels like?” found that targets of workplace abuse who had been faltering and
hesitant in our focus groups lit up, and more confidently and coherently narrated their
workplace bullying situation
4
Tracy (2019) CH 3 – paradigmatic reflections and qualitative research theories.................3
Key territories and approaches of qualitative research................................................................3
Case study.......................................................................................................................................................3
Grounded theory............................................................................................................................................3
Ethnography and ethnography of communication........................................................................................3
Phenomenology..............................................................................................................................................3
Participatory action research..........................................................................................................................3
Narrative inquiry and autoethnography.........................................................................................................4
Arts‐based research (ABR)..............................................................................................................................4
Tracy (2019) CH 4 – Research design: sampling, research proposals, ethics, and IRB...........5
Planning the data collection: fieldwork, interviews, texts, and visuals.........................................5
Fieldwork and “participant witnessing”.........................................................................................................5
Interviews.......................................................................................................................................................5
The value of textual analysis and cultural studies..........................................................................................5
Visual and art-based material.........................................................................................................................5
Developing a sampling plan: who, what, where, how, and when.................................................6
Purposeful sampling.......................................................................................................................................6
Random samples and representative samples...............................................................................................6
Convenience/opportunistic samples..............................................................................................................6
Maximum variation samples..........................................................................................................................6
Snowball samples............................................................................................................................................6
Theoretical‐construct samples.......................................................................................................................6
Typical, extreme, deviant, and critical incident samples................................................................................7
Extreme instance or deviance sampling.........................................................................................................7
Critical incident sampling................................................................................................................................7
Ethics and institutional review boards (IRB).................................................................................8
Informed consent:..........................................................................................................................................8
Creating a research proposal........................................................................................................8
Ch 4 Sampling – Trochim..............................................................................................................9
Sampling terminology.....................................................................................................................................9
External validity..............................................................................................................................................9
Sampling methods........................................................................................................................................10
Sampling distribution....................................................................................................................................10
Sampling error..............................................................................................................................................11
Probability sampling procedures..................................................................................................................11
Ch 5 Introduction to Measurement............................................................................................15
Levels of measurement.................................................................................................................................15
Quality of measurement...............................................................................................................................15
Reliability......................................................................................................................................................15
Validity..........................................................................................................................................................16
Construct validity:.........................................................................................................................................17
Threats to construct validity.........................................................................................................................17
The social threats to construct validity.........................................................................................................18
CH 6: Scales, Tests, and Indexes – Trochim.................................................................................19
Scales............................................................................................................................................................19
Tests..............................................................................................................................................................20
Indexes..........................................................................................................................................................21
1
, Ch 7: Survey Research – Trochim................................................................................................22
Types of questionnaires:...............................................................................................................................22
Types of interviews:......................................................................................................................................22
Selecting the survey method........................................................................................................................22
Survey design................................................................................................................................................23
Interviews.....................................................................................................................................................25
CH 8 Introduction to design - Trochim........................................................................................27
Research design and causality......................................................................................................................27
Internal validity.............................................................................................................................................27
Threats to internal validity............................................................................................................................27
Developing a research design.......................................................................................................................28
Design notion................................................................................................................................................28
Types of designs............................................................................................................................................29
CH 9: Experimental Design – Trochim.........................................................................................30
Foundations of experimental design............................................................................................................30
Experimental design and threats to internal validity...................................................................................30
Classifying experimental designs..................................................................................................................31
Signal enhancing designs: factorial designs..................................................................................................31
Factorial design variations............................................................................................................................33
Noise reducing designs: randomized block designs.....................................................................................35
Hybrid designs: switching-replications experimental designs......................................................................36
Limitations of experimental design..............................................................................................................36
Ch 10 – Quasi-experimental design – Trochim............................................................................37
Non-equivalent groups design (NEGD).........................................................................................................37
Regression discontinuity design...................................................................................................................39
Other quasi-experimental designs................................................................................................................40
Notes from exam review class....................................................................................................43
Ch 11 – Introduction to data analysis..........................................................................................44
Threats to conclusion validity.......................................................................................................................44
Type 1 error:.................................................................................................................................................44
Type 2 error:.................................................................................................................................................44
Improving conclusion validity.......................................................................................................................44
Data preparation...........................................................................................................................................45
Descriptive statistics.....................................................................................................................................46
2
,Tracy (2019) CH 3 – paradigmatic reflections and
qualitative research theories
Key territories and approaches of qualitative research
Most practiced approaches in qualitative research: case study, grounded theory, ethnography,
phenomenology, participatory action research, personal narrative and autoethnography, and arts ‐based
approaches
Case study
- In‐depth contextual analyses of one or a few instances of a naturalistic phenomenon, such as a
person, an organization, a program, an event, a geographical location, or a decision.
- Common in law, psychology, urban-planning, and political science.
- Case studies have four primary uses: “(1) description, (2) hypothesis generation or theory
development, (3) hypothesis and theory testing, and (4) development of normative theory”
- Case study researchers use a variety of data collection methods – including interviews, participant
observation, and surveys – and analytic approaches – such as thick description, narrative,
discourse/process tracing, and grounded theory– to shed light on the case at hand.
Grounded theory
- The systematic “ground‐up” analysis of data with the aim of generating theory that explains some
context or phenomenon
- Researchers begin by collecting data, engaging in open line ‐by ‐line analysis, creating larger themes
from these data, and linking them together to create an emergent explanation or theory
Ethnography and ethnography of communication
- Long‐term immersion in a culture is a hallmark of ethnography
- As they write and describe people and cultures, ethnographers tend to live intimately beside and
among other cultural members.
- Ethnographers focus on a wide range of cultural aspects, including language use, rituals, ceremonies,
relationships, and artifacts
- Ethnography of communication (EOC) is an example, examines patterns, rules, and codes of culturally
distinctive speech communities
o Concerned with three main issues; linguistic rules used by participants, comparing messages
across different communication methods, how communication reveals norms of identity,
culture, or relationships.
Phenomenology
- Focused on describing the experiential essence of human experiences and capturing the present living
moment
- Any lived experience; such as shaking hands, illness, sexual arousal, bullying, or texting.
- It is suggested that because people give meaning to things they perceive in the world, the
phenomenological experience is subjective
- Many of today’s qualitative researchers using phenomenology consider the ways that power, history,
ideology, and the limits of text and language mediate access to direct experience
Case study = specific example eg Hilton
Phenomenology – guest service experience overall – something more abstract
Participatory action research
- Based upon the notion that researchers should work together with research participants to help them
address, understand, or improve local issues or dilemmas
- The goal of PAR is to combine the researcher’s theoretical knowledge and experience with practical
knowledge in the field to promote co‐ learning
3
, - PAR research is marked by shared ownership of research projects, community ‐based analysis of social
problems, and an orientation toward community action
- At the same time, PAR researchers tread a fine line between guiding research participants and
imposing their own opinion or methodology eg when studying indigenous communities, therefore
Community‐based participatory research (CBPR) advocates research in which subaltern and
marginalized communities take the lead. requires respect, rigorous incorporation of members’
input, creating results that directly help the community in need, and sensitivity
- Example: In West Bengal, India, Dutta and Dutta (2013) worked alongside community members to
highlight structural health inequalities stemming from a shortage of communication with the rural
poor.
Narrative inquiry and autoethnography
- Researchers view stories as fundamental to human experience, they construct and shape
- Autoethnography refers to the systematic study, analysis, and narrative description of one’s own
experiences, interactions, culture, and identity
- Gathered through fieldnotes, interviews, oral tales, blogs, letters, or autobiographies
- Many autoethnographies are marked by intersectionality, focusing on how intersecting identity
standpoints based on sexual orientation, gender identity, social class, ethnicity, religion, age, ability,
and education emerge as salient in our interactions, and how these subject positions impact one’s
privilege, marginalization, or vulnerability in life as lived
Arts‐based research (ABR)
- Incorporates aspects of the creative arts into the research study, emphasizing artistic practice as a
way of exploring, knowing, and representing
- Shows how images, contemplation, and aesthetic use of language can be particularly evocative,
experiential, moving, and/or disquieting.
- Arts‐based approaches can access emotion, tacit assumptions, and collective sensemaking. Especially
when participants are in the midst of tragedy or upset, they may be unable or unwilling to articulate
their situation with words
o For example, after drawing a picture in response to the prompt, “what does workplace
bullying feels like?” found that targets of workplace abuse who had been faltering and
hesitant in our focus groups lit up, and more confidently and coherently narrated their
workplace bullying situation
4
