The nervous system - primary communication system that co- Neurons
Sensory – carry impulses from receptors to spinal cord.
ordinates with the endocrine to ensure correct hormones are released in
response to the environment. Relay – allow communication between motor & sensory (in spinal
cord)
Central
Peripheral nervous system Motor – connect CNS to effectors & cause muscle movement
Nervous system
(PNS) – transmits messages via Action potential – the electrical signal transmitted within a neurone
(CNS)
neurons 1. Dendrites – receive impulse from neighbouring neurones
Autonomic nervous Somatic nervous Brain –for Spinal 2. Axon – takes message from dendrites to terminal
system (ANS) system (SNS) – cognitive cord – 3. Myelin Sheath – fatty layer protects axon & speeds up
involuntary vital functions voluntary muscle conscious relay info transmission
e.g., breathing, heart movement. Connects decisions. between 4. Nodes of Ranvier – gaps force impulse to ‘jump’ speeding up
rate, stress sensory neurones to Process of brain &. transmission
body
CNS
Sympathetic NS– actives response to emergencies
info 5. Axon Terminal –1.transmit
Skin receptor
signal to dendrites of net neurone
2. Sensory neurone
Parasympathetic NS– reverse changes of Sympathetic NS 3. Relay neurone
once threat has gone 4. Motor neurone
The Endocrine system – works alongside the NS
- Secrete hormones to regulate bodily functions 5. Effector (muscle)
- Communication system via the bloodstream
- Hypothalamus detects change, sends a signal to pituitary gland,
which secretes a hormone into the blood stream. Hormone binds Synapse – separates neurones, signals are transmitted chemically
to target cells between neurones.
o Adrenal gland adrenaline to control fight/ flight response 1. The action potential reaches the axon terminal and activates
o Thyroid gland thyroxine to increase metabolic rate vesicles in the presynaptic neurone
Fight/ Flight response (Endocrine & NS work together) – automatic 2. the vesicles hold neurotransmitters which are chemical
response to environmental situation messengers. These release neurotransmitters in the synaptic
1. Hypothalamus detects threat cleft
2. NS activates sympathetic branch of autonomic NS 3. the message is now chemical. Neurotransmitters diffuse down
3. Endocrine system secretes adrenaline from adrenal medulla into conc gradient across the synapse (one direction only)
bloodstream 4. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites on post
4. Adrenaline prepares fight/ flight response: synaptic neurone.
- heart rate, pupil dilation, muscle tension, sweat, digestion stops, 5. Binding of neurones have excitatory or inhibitory effect
stops saliva production. - Excitation – increase +ve charge and make post synaptic
5. Parasympathetic NS will return body to resting state. neurone fire another signal
Weaknesses of Fight/ flight. - Inhibition – increase -ve charge and stop transmission of signal
Gray 1988 – humans may engage in additional ‘freeze’ response. 6. Summation – both excitatory & inhibitory neurones bind, the
Suffers Beta bias – only a male response to danger majority wins and determines effect.
SSRI’s
- Taylor – women have ‘tend & befriend’, found to protect (tend) & 1. Presynaptic neurone release serotonin into
form alliance with other females (befriend) synaptic cleft
low temporal validity 2. SSRI’s bind to receptor sites on presynaptic
- Modern life does not need such an intense response, causing neurone preventing reabsorption of
unnecessary stress. serotonin
- Outdated & no longer applicable. 3. Serotonin is forced to stay in the synaptic
cleft
4. When receptor sites of postsynaptic neurone
become available, serotonin binds & is
, Localisation – specific areas of the brain are associated with specific Hemispheric lateralisation – 2 hemispheres function
physiological functions. If the area is damaged the function is affected. differently.
- (Opposes Holism). - Left hemisphere – language
Two hemispheres – left & right - Right hemisphere – touch & facial recognition, drawing
Contralateral – left hemisphere controls right side of body. Vice versa. Sperry 1968 Split brain research
Cerebral cortex – outer layer of both hemispheres, divided into 4 lobes where - brain is contralateral with Visual Field & body
most info processing occurs. Humans is most highly developed compared to - LVF processed by RH (RH controls left side of body)
animals. - RVF processed by LH (LH controls right side of body)
Frontal lobe Procedure Split-brain patients’
- Motor cortex – contralateral voluntary movement. Damage = loss of findings
control over fine motor movement. 1. Split brain patients had Object flashed to RVF
- Broca’s area in left hemisphere – speech production. Broca’s aphasia commissurotomy (corpus - named (LH language)
causes slow speech & low fluency despite perfect comprehension. collosum cut) due to Object flashed to LVF
Parietal lobe (separated from motor cortex by central sulcus) epilepsy. Affecting - patients see ‘nothing’
- Somatosensory area – detects sensory info from the skin, contralateral. communication between - can select object with
- Skin is ‘mapped out’ on area with face & hands occupying over half. R&L hemispheres. left hand (RH touch
Occipital lobe Compared with normal recognition)
- Visual centres process visual info. Contralateral with visual field. individuals. - can be drawn with left
Temporal lobe 2. Image flashed for 1/10th sec hand (RH drawing)
- Auditory centres process auditory info, contralateral. Damage = hearing meant image only available Two words flashed
loss. to one hemisphere together
- Wernicke’s area in left hemisphere – language comprehension. 3. Right visual field processed - word in RVF &
Wernicke’s aphasia causes unrelated responses despite speech fluency by LH & left visual field processed by LH could
being perfect. processed by RH. be named (LH
Strength Weakness 4. Split-brain patients cannot language)
Phineas Gage – damage to Plasticity states other parts of brain can re- communicate info seen - word in LVF processed
frontal lobe & was wire to carry out functions of damaged areas. between hemispheres like by RH selected by left
described a different - Hubel & Wiesal normal people could. hand from objects (RH
person. Lashley experiment on rats found it was the % touch recognition)
Peterson - looked at brain removed from rats’ brains & not the part
scanning. Wernicke’s active (motor cortex) removed that affected ability to Strength Weakness
during listening & Broca’s learn a maze. Lab Variable - all patients had epilepsy.
during reading. - Suggests holistic view that brain works - stimulu - Low internal validity = lower trust in theory
together for complex tasks s - Limited application
sor
x
corte
flashed Cutting of commissurotomy varied in
tosen
for patients
Motor
Soma
1/10 of - Some patients on drugs
area
sec - Cofounding variable = low internal validity
y
’s
Broca’s c ke
area rni
We a
are
Sensory – carry impulses from receptors to spinal cord.
ordinates with the endocrine to ensure correct hormones are released in
response to the environment. Relay – allow communication between motor & sensory (in spinal
cord)
Central
Peripheral nervous system Motor – connect CNS to effectors & cause muscle movement
Nervous system
(PNS) – transmits messages via Action potential – the electrical signal transmitted within a neurone
(CNS)
neurons 1. Dendrites – receive impulse from neighbouring neurones
Autonomic nervous Somatic nervous Brain –for Spinal 2. Axon – takes message from dendrites to terminal
system (ANS) system (SNS) – cognitive cord – 3. Myelin Sheath – fatty layer protects axon & speeds up
involuntary vital functions voluntary muscle conscious relay info transmission
e.g., breathing, heart movement. Connects decisions. between 4. Nodes of Ranvier – gaps force impulse to ‘jump’ speeding up
rate, stress sensory neurones to Process of brain &. transmission
body
CNS
Sympathetic NS– actives response to emergencies
info 5. Axon Terminal –1.transmit
Skin receptor
signal to dendrites of net neurone
2. Sensory neurone
Parasympathetic NS– reverse changes of Sympathetic NS 3. Relay neurone
once threat has gone 4. Motor neurone
The Endocrine system – works alongside the NS
- Secrete hormones to regulate bodily functions 5. Effector (muscle)
- Communication system via the bloodstream
- Hypothalamus detects change, sends a signal to pituitary gland,
which secretes a hormone into the blood stream. Hormone binds Synapse – separates neurones, signals are transmitted chemically
to target cells between neurones.
o Adrenal gland adrenaline to control fight/ flight response 1. The action potential reaches the axon terminal and activates
o Thyroid gland thyroxine to increase metabolic rate vesicles in the presynaptic neurone
Fight/ Flight response (Endocrine & NS work together) – automatic 2. the vesicles hold neurotransmitters which are chemical
response to environmental situation messengers. These release neurotransmitters in the synaptic
1. Hypothalamus detects threat cleft
2. NS activates sympathetic branch of autonomic NS 3. the message is now chemical. Neurotransmitters diffuse down
3. Endocrine system secretes adrenaline from adrenal medulla into conc gradient across the synapse (one direction only)
bloodstream 4. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites on post
4. Adrenaline prepares fight/ flight response: synaptic neurone.
- heart rate, pupil dilation, muscle tension, sweat, digestion stops, 5. Binding of neurones have excitatory or inhibitory effect
stops saliva production. - Excitation – increase +ve charge and make post synaptic
5. Parasympathetic NS will return body to resting state. neurone fire another signal
Weaknesses of Fight/ flight. - Inhibition – increase -ve charge and stop transmission of signal
Gray 1988 – humans may engage in additional ‘freeze’ response. 6. Summation – both excitatory & inhibitory neurones bind, the
Suffers Beta bias – only a male response to danger majority wins and determines effect.
SSRI’s
- Taylor – women have ‘tend & befriend’, found to protect (tend) & 1. Presynaptic neurone release serotonin into
form alliance with other females (befriend) synaptic cleft
low temporal validity 2. SSRI’s bind to receptor sites on presynaptic
- Modern life does not need such an intense response, causing neurone preventing reabsorption of
unnecessary stress. serotonin
- Outdated & no longer applicable. 3. Serotonin is forced to stay in the synaptic
cleft
4. When receptor sites of postsynaptic neurone
become available, serotonin binds & is
, Localisation – specific areas of the brain are associated with specific Hemispheric lateralisation – 2 hemispheres function
physiological functions. If the area is damaged the function is affected. differently.
- (Opposes Holism). - Left hemisphere – language
Two hemispheres – left & right - Right hemisphere – touch & facial recognition, drawing
Contralateral – left hemisphere controls right side of body. Vice versa. Sperry 1968 Split brain research
Cerebral cortex – outer layer of both hemispheres, divided into 4 lobes where - brain is contralateral with Visual Field & body
most info processing occurs. Humans is most highly developed compared to - LVF processed by RH (RH controls left side of body)
animals. - RVF processed by LH (LH controls right side of body)
Frontal lobe Procedure Split-brain patients’
- Motor cortex – contralateral voluntary movement. Damage = loss of findings
control over fine motor movement. 1. Split brain patients had Object flashed to RVF
- Broca’s area in left hemisphere – speech production. Broca’s aphasia commissurotomy (corpus - named (LH language)
causes slow speech & low fluency despite perfect comprehension. collosum cut) due to Object flashed to LVF
Parietal lobe (separated from motor cortex by central sulcus) epilepsy. Affecting - patients see ‘nothing’
- Somatosensory area – detects sensory info from the skin, contralateral. communication between - can select object with
- Skin is ‘mapped out’ on area with face & hands occupying over half. R&L hemispheres. left hand (RH touch
Occipital lobe Compared with normal recognition)
- Visual centres process visual info. Contralateral with visual field. individuals. - can be drawn with left
Temporal lobe 2. Image flashed for 1/10th sec hand (RH drawing)
- Auditory centres process auditory info, contralateral. Damage = hearing meant image only available Two words flashed
loss. to one hemisphere together
- Wernicke’s area in left hemisphere – language comprehension. 3. Right visual field processed - word in RVF &
Wernicke’s aphasia causes unrelated responses despite speech fluency by LH & left visual field processed by LH could
being perfect. processed by RH. be named (LH
Strength Weakness 4. Split-brain patients cannot language)
Phineas Gage – damage to Plasticity states other parts of brain can re- communicate info seen - word in LVF processed
frontal lobe & was wire to carry out functions of damaged areas. between hemispheres like by RH selected by left
described a different - Hubel & Wiesal normal people could. hand from objects (RH
person. Lashley experiment on rats found it was the % touch recognition)
Peterson - looked at brain removed from rats’ brains & not the part
scanning. Wernicke’s active (motor cortex) removed that affected ability to Strength Weakness
during listening & Broca’s learn a maze. Lab Variable - all patients had epilepsy.
during reading. - Suggests holistic view that brain works - stimulu - Low internal validity = lower trust in theory
together for complex tasks s - Limited application
sor
x
corte
flashed Cutting of commissurotomy varied in
tosen
for patients
Motor
Soma
1/10 of - Some patients on drugs
area
sec - Cofounding variable = low internal validity
y
’s
Broca’s c ke
area rni
We a
are
