DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
PYC4805
DETAILED EXAM NOTES
2023
Perfectionist Notes
PRIVATE TUTOR FOR HONOURS IN PSYCHOLOGY - UNISA
helping you achieve your best results
TEXTBOOK USED:
Kail, R. V., Cavanaugh, J. C. & Muller, J. (2019). Human Development. A Life-span View (1 South African ed.). Cengage.
(ISBN978-4743-5957-2)
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
Table of Contents
EXAM STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Theme 2........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Chapter 3......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Theme 3...................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 8 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 67
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 9 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 73
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 10...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Theme 3...................................................................................................................................................................... 89
CHAPTER 13..................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Theme 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Theme 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 100
Theme 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 104
CHAPTER 14................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Theme 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Theme 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Theme 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 116
CHAPTER 15................................................................................................................................................................... 124
1
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Theme 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 124
Theme 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 128
CHAPTER 16................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Theme 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Theme 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Past Papers .................................................................................................................................................................... 141
HOW TO USE THESE NOTES
This is a detailed summary of the textbook, according to the tut 102 exam guidelines.
Use these notes to make your own super summaries, or download my super summaries from STUVIA.
Remember to isolate key information, as a lot of the information is for context.
Apply your knowledge by practicing past exam papers.
Watch this video on how to prepare for the exam:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uCzu-tJyEAfdYPGQmTycaYpsjGjQD0rO/view?usp=drive_link
2
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
EXAM STRUCTURE
TOTAL OF 4 ESSAYS
SECTION A:
There will be four essay questions presented. They are worth 20 marks each. Choose only three (3) essay
questions to answer. Total of 60 marks for section A.
SECTION B:
There will be two essay questions presented. They are worth 15 marks each. Choose only one (1) essay
question to answer. Total of 15 marks for section B.
EXAM TIPS
Spend approximately 45-50 minutes per 20-mark question and 30-35 minutes per 15-mark question.
An exam question may cover sections from different themes/chapters in the textbook. Therefore use a
combination of themes to answer an essay question. Therefore, ensure that you have good insight and
understanding of the themes and how different aspects of human development relate to one another.
You are expected to validate discussions of the various themes with research findings where applicable.
WHAT ARE RESEARCH FINDINGS: these are the studies mentioned within the textbook to provide context
to the theory. Mention them to add to your essay answers.
HOW TO ANSWER AN ESSAY QUESTION:
Write the essay in your own words
Make use of headings - headings can help you structure or organise your thoughts, and they assist you to
provide information that is relevant to discuss the theme.
Define or briefly explain concepts that are included in a specific theme.
You are not required to cite/refer to the textbook in the exam.
As the exam is a closed book exam and you are not allowed to use the textbook and/or any study notes
while writing the exam, you are expected to discuss the questions in your own words. Therefore, you can
use the names of theorists/researchers when you discuss the questions, but you do not need to include any
kind of referencing (either in-text or a reference list).
Type the answers to the exam questions (instead of handwritten answers).
Regarding the length of the answers to exam questions: We recommend 2-3 typed pages for a 20-mark
question and one-and-a-half to 2 typed pages for a 15-mark question
3
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
THEMES Summarised Highlighted Created Cheat Practiced Practiced an
AND the theme the summary Sheet/Mind typing out in essay question
CHAPTERS Map Summary essay format with this
theme
CHAPTER 1
Theme 2
CHAPTER 3
Theme 2
CHAPTER 4
Theme 1
Theme 2
CHAPTER 5
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
CHAPTER 6
Theme 1
Theme 2
CHAPTER 7
Theme 2
CHAPTER 8
Theme 1
CHAPTER 9
Theme 1
CHAPTER
10
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
CHAPTER
13
Theme 1
Theme 2
4
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Theme 3
CHAPTER
14
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
CHAPTER
15
Theme 1
Theme 3
CHAPTER
16
Theme 1
Theme 2
5
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Chapter 1
Theme 2
CH1: The study of human development
Theme 2: Developmental theories
Guidelines
1. Pay attention to the various developmental theories, namely:
- psychodynamic theories;
- learning theories;
- cognitive-developmental theories;
- ecological and systems approaches;
- life-span perspective;
- selective optimisation with compensation;
- and life-course perspective.
Hint: When asked to provide a comparison between the theories, you can do it in table format.
Page 12 of the PDF
1. Introduction
Theories are essential because they provide the ‘why’s’ for development.
DEFINTION: theory: an organised set of ideas that explain development.
There are no truly comprehensive theories of human development to guide research. Instead, five general
perspectives influence current research:
1) psychodynamic theory;
2) learning theory;
3) cognitive theory,
4) ecological and systems theory;
5) and theories involving the life-span perspective, selective optimisation with compensation, and the life-
course perspective.
2. Psychodynamic theory
DEFINITON: Psychodynamic theories: hold that development is largely determined by how well people
resolve conflicts they face at different ages.
This perspective traces its roots to the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) that suggested that
personality emerges from conflicts that children experience between what they want to do and what society
wants them to do.
Building on Sigmund Freud’s ideas, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) proposed his psychosocial theory, the first
comprehensive life-span view, which still remains an important theoretical framework.
2.1. Erikson’s theory
Erikson’ psychosocial theory
DEFINTION: psychosocial theory: proposes that personality development is determined by the interaction
of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands.
He proposed that the life cycle is composed of eight stages and that the order of the stages is biologically
fixed.
The name of each stage reflects the challenge people face at a particular age. For example, the challenge for
young adults is to become involved in a loving relationship. Challenges are met through a combination of
6
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
inner psychological influences and outer social influences. When challenges are met successfully, people are
well prepared to meet the challenge of the next stage.
The sequence of stages in Erikson’ theory is based on the epigenetic principle.
DEFINITION: epigenetic principle: each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular
importance.
The eight stages represent the order of this process, and it takes a lifetime to acquire all of the psychosocial
strengths.
Moreover, Erikson realises that present and future behaviour must have its roots in the past because later
stages are built on the foundation laid in previous stages.
The psychodynamic perspective emphasises that the trek to adulthood is difficult because the path is full of
challenges.
Outcomes of development reflect the manner and ease (or difficulty) with which people overcome (or fail to
overcome) life's barriers. When children easily overcome early obstacles, for example, they are better able
to handle the later ones.
ERIKSONS Psychosocial Developmental Stages
Psychosocial stage Age Challenge
Basic trust vs mistrust Birth - 1 To develop a sense that the world is a safe
and good place
Autonomy vs shame 1–3 To realise that one is an independent
person who can make decisions and doubt
Initiative vs guilt 3–6 To develop the ability to try new things and
to handle failure
Industry vs inferiority 6 – adolescence To learn basic skills and to work with
others
Identity vs identity confusion Adolescence To develop a lasting integrated sense of self
Intimacy vs isolation Young adulthood To commit to another in a loving
relationship
Generativity vs stagnation Middle adulthood To contribute to younger people through
child rearing, child care or other productive
work
Integrity vs despair Late life To view one’s life as satisfactory and worth
living
3. Learning theory
In contrast to psychodynamic theory, learning theory concentrates on how learning influences a person's
behaviour.
This perspective emphasises the role of experience, examining whether a person's behaviour is rewarded or
punished.
This perspective also emphasises that people learn from watching others around them.
Two influential theories in this perspective are behaviourism and social learning theory.
7
PSYCHOLOGY
PYC4805
DETAILED EXAM NOTES
2023
Perfectionist Notes
PRIVATE TUTOR FOR HONOURS IN PSYCHOLOGY - UNISA
helping you achieve your best results
TEXTBOOK USED:
Kail, R. V., Cavanaugh, J. C. & Muller, J. (2019). Human Development. A Life-span View (1 South African ed.). Cengage.
(ISBN978-4743-5957-2)
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
Table of Contents
EXAM STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Theme 2........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Chapter 3......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Theme 3...................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 8 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 67
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 9 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 73
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 10...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Theme 1...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Theme 2...................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Theme 3...................................................................................................................................................................... 89
CHAPTER 13..................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Theme 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Theme 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 100
Theme 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 104
CHAPTER 14................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Theme 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Theme 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Theme 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 116
CHAPTER 15................................................................................................................................................................... 124
1
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
Theme 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 124
Theme 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 128
CHAPTER 16................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Theme 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Theme 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Past Papers .................................................................................................................................................................... 141
HOW TO USE THESE NOTES
This is a detailed summary of the textbook, according to the tut 102 exam guidelines.
Use these notes to make your own super summaries, or download my super summaries from STUVIA.
Remember to isolate key information, as a lot of the information is for context.
Apply your knowledge by practicing past exam papers.
Watch this video on how to prepare for the exam:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uCzu-tJyEAfdYPGQmTycaYpsjGjQD0rO/view?usp=drive_link
2
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
EXAM STRUCTURE
TOTAL OF 4 ESSAYS
SECTION A:
There will be four essay questions presented. They are worth 20 marks each. Choose only three (3) essay
questions to answer. Total of 60 marks for section A.
SECTION B:
There will be two essay questions presented. They are worth 15 marks each. Choose only one (1) essay
question to answer. Total of 15 marks for section B.
EXAM TIPS
Spend approximately 45-50 minutes per 20-mark question and 30-35 minutes per 15-mark question.
An exam question may cover sections from different themes/chapters in the textbook. Therefore use a
combination of themes to answer an essay question. Therefore, ensure that you have good insight and
understanding of the themes and how different aspects of human development relate to one another.
You are expected to validate discussions of the various themes with research findings where applicable.
WHAT ARE RESEARCH FINDINGS: these are the studies mentioned within the textbook to provide context
to the theory. Mention them to add to your essay answers.
HOW TO ANSWER AN ESSAY QUESTION:
Write the essay in your own words
Make use of headings - headings can help you structure or organise your thoughts, and they assist you to
provide information that is relevant to discuss the theme.
Define or briefly explain concepts that are included in a specific theme.
You are not required to cite/refer to the textbook in the exam.
As the exam is a closed book exam and you are not allowed to use the textbook and/or any study notes
while writing the exam, you are expected to discuss the questions in your own words. Therefore, you can
use the names of theorists/researchers when you discuss the questions, but you do not need to include any
kind of referencing (either in-text or a reference list).
Type the answers to the exam questions (instead of handwritten answers).
Regarding the length of the answers to exam questions: We recommend 2-3 typed pages for a 20-mark
question and one-and-a-half to 2 typed pages for a 15-mark question
3
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
THEMES Summarised Highlighted Created Cheat Practiced Practiced an
AND the theme the summary Sheet/Mind typing out in essay question
CHAPTERS Map Summary essay format with this
theme
CHAPTER 1
Theme 2
CHAPTER 3
Theme 2
CHAPTER 4
Theme 1
Theme 2
CHAPTER 5
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
CHAPTER 6
Theme 1
Theme 2
CHAPTER 7
Theme 2
CHAPTER 8
Theme 1
CHAPTER 9
Theme 1
CHAPTER
10
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
CHAPTER
13
Theme 1
Theme 2
4
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
Theme 3
CHAPTER
14
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
CHAPTER
15
Theme 1
Theme 3
CHAPTER
16
Theme 1
Theme 2
5
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
Chapter 1
Theme 2
CH1: The study of human development
Theme 2: Developmental theories
Guidelines
1. Pay attention to the various developmental theories, namely:
- psychodynamic theories;
- learning theories;
- cognitive-developmental theories;
- ecological and systems approaches;
- life-span perspective;
- selective optimisation with compensation;
- and life-course perspective.
Hint: When asked to provide a comparison between the theories, you can do it in table format.
Page 12 of the PDF
1. Introduction
Theories are essential because they provide the ‘why’s’ for development.
DEFINTION: theory: an organised set of ideas that explain development.
There are no truly comprehensive theories of human development to guide research. Instead, five general
perspectives influence current research:
1) psychodynamic theory;
2) learning theory;
3) cognitive theory,
4) ecological and systems theory;
5) and theories involving the life-span perspective, selective optimisation with compensation, and the life-
course perspective.
2. Psychodynamic theory
DEFINITON: Psychodynamic theories: hold that development is largely determined by how well people
resolve conflicts they face at different ages.
This perspective traces its roots to the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) that suggested that
personality emerges from conflicts that children experience between what they want to do and what society
wants them to do.
Building on Sigmund Freud’s ideas, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) proposed his psychosocial theory, the first
comprehensive life-span view, which still remains an important theoretical framework.
2.1. Erikson’s theory
Erikson’ psychosocial theory
DEFINTION: psychosocial theory: proposes that personality development is determined by the interaction
of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands.
He proposed that the life cycle is composed of eight stages and that the order of the stages is biologically
fixed.
The name of each stage reflects the challenge people face at a particular age. For example, the challenge for
young adults is to become involved in a loving relationship. Challenges are met through a combination of
6
, Property of Perfectionist Notes
Plagiarism/distribution/selling/illegal use of these notes will be prosecuted
inner psychological influences and outer social influences. When challenges are met successfully, people are
well prepared to meet the challenge of the next stage.
The sequence of stages in Erikson’ theory is based on the epigenetic principle.
DEFINITION: epigenetic principle: each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular
importance.
The eight stages represent the order of this process, and it takes a lifetime to acquire all of the psychosocial
strengths.
Moreover, Erikson realises that present and future behaviour must have its roots in the past because later
stages are built on the foundation laid in previous stages.
The psychodynamic perspective emphasises that the trek to adulthood is difficult because the path is full of
challenges.
Outcomes of development reflect the manner and ease (or difficulty) with which people overcome (or fail to
overcome) life's barriers. When children easily overcome early obstacles, for example, they are better able
to handle the later ones.
ERIKSONS Psychosocial Developmental Stages
Psychosocial stage Age Challenge
Basic trust vs mistrust Birth - 1 To develop a sense that the world is a safe
and good place
Autonomy vs shame 1–3 To realise that one is an independent
person who can make decisions and doubt
Initiative vs guilt 3–6 To develop the ability to try new things and
to handle failure
Industry vs inferiority 6 – adolescence To learn basic skills and to work with
others
Identity vs identity confusion Adolescence To develop a lasting integrated sense of self
Intimacy vs isolation Young adulthood To commit to another in a loving
relationship
Generativity vs stagnation Middle adulthood To contribute to younger people through
child rearing, child care or other productive
work
Integrity vs despair Late life To view one’s life as satisfactory and worth
living
3. Learning theory
In contrast to psychodynamic theory, learning theory concentrates on how learning influences a person's
behaviour.
This perspective emphasises the role of experience, examining whether a person's behaviour is rewarded or
punished.
This perspective also emphasises that people learn from watching others around them.
Two influential theories in this perspective are behaviourism and social learning theory.
7
