Political Rhetoric
Lecture 1: Introduction
The importance of political rhetoric
No politics without persuasion (=overtuiging)
Different actors have different vision
Reason: uncertainty
Persuasion by speech vs. persuasion by force
Persuasion is “a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince
other people to change their own attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue
through the transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice”
= een symbolisch proces waarin communicatoren andere mensen
proberen te overtuigen hun eigen houding of gedrag met betrekking tot
een kwestie te veranderen door het overbrengen van een boodschap in
een sfeer van vrije keuze
“Democracy = is distinguished as a form of governance by the extent of
persuasion relative to coercion" (Mutz, Sniderman & Brody, 1996)
= democratie onderscheidt zich als bestuursvorm door de mate van
overreding ten opzichte van dwang
The fundamental political skill?
One of the most important aspects
Persuasion is very important
What is the difference between persuasion by speech and persuasion by force?
Persuasion by speech:
Most powerful
Used by political actors even in systems that aren’t democratic
Gebruikt door politieke actoren, zelfs in systemen die niet democratisch zijn.
Persuasion by speech has a voluntary aspect/decision to accept what this
person is saying/to be convinced
You internalize it more, that’s why it is the most powerful
Persuasion by force (geweld):
By using violence/to threaten
1
,What is rhetoric?
Where does Greek ‘retoriketekhne’ come from?
Rhetor: speaker
Thekne: art
Retoriketekhne: the art of speaking, the art to persuade others
What does studying rhetoric mean?
= Learning the practical skills of persuasion
= Studying the persuasiveness of speech
Not limited to spoken words, also written word, visuals
Political rhetoric
Persuasion in politics: A way of achieving or keeping office, of use resources in specific
ways, of weakening opponents or sustaining alliances
Een manier om een functie te bereiken of te behouden, om middelen op specifieke
manieren te gebruiken, om tegenstanders te verzwakken of bondgenootschappen in
stand te houden
Many areas of rhetorical studies (law, marketing, organization)
We look at the persuasion in the political realm
Not limited to politicians:
Emma Watson in United Nation for gender equality, Steven Van Gucht in the
pandemic, journalist at Fox News
Exercise - Martin Luther King speech
“Most famous persuasive speech in history”
Martin Luther King – I have a dream
Activist leader of civil rights movement
August 1963
March on Washington for jobs and freedom
100 years after Emancipation Proclamation (Lincoln)
Task: Do you find the speech persuasive?
Yes,
He offers solutions to the problems
It is an emotional speech, gives elements of hope
Powerful words
He tries to create a community, not only with black people
2
, His credibility as a person: Who he is, displaying eloquence, expertise, reason
Arousal of emotion (metaphors)
Convincing arguments
Use of rhetorical devices (repetitions, allusions, rhyme)
How he speaks
The field of political rhetoric, a diverse research field?
Different backgrounds, different questions
Linguistics (rhetorical figures)
Psychology (emotions vs. the cognitive)
Political science (questions of power)
Communication science (mass media)
Each with their own terminology & research methods
Difficulty: All these different fields don’t talk to each other
Rhetoric
Rhetoric, a contested notion
With what is rhetoric often associated?
Words often associated with rhetoric: “mere rhetoric” & “empty rhetoric”
Rhetoric is contrasted with reality
Rhetoric is often associate with danger
At the same time: no democracy without free speech?
Essence is that we think that rhetoric is a good thing
Everyone is allowed to express what they think, express their opinion
Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy
Greece, 500BC
From aristocracy to democracy
Aristocracy: Only rich people can participate in the decision making
Democracy: Everyone can participate in the decision making
Highly participatory system
Status of being citizen comes with obligations (de status van burger brengt
verplichtingen met zich mee)
Rhetoric skills were important, everyone can speak up in the Ecclesia
Teachers: sophist
Sophist instructed the people in the techniques of persuasive rhetoric
Cultural of oral transmission: People were used to listening to each other
3
, Politican: Any individual or group that seeks to promote a political position, whether inside or
outside formal institutions = elk individu of groep die een politiek standpunt probeert te
bevorderen, binnen of buiten formele instellingen.
Plato
Who is Plato?
He didn’t like the turn to democracy (democracy = een manier van regeren die
afhangt van de wil van het volk)
He is an aristocrat deeply dismayed by the teaching of the sophist = Hij is een
aristocraat die diep geschokt is door de leer van de sofist...
What did he say/do in his life?
“Rhetoric is empty and dangerous”
It can persuade most people of anything
Rhetoric = a ‘rudderless boat’; “sophistries”
- Sophistries: Tricks to convince people of things that are not true
A technique you better don’t use
Can do bad instead of good (death of his mentor Socrates)
Socrates = needed to drink poison (Plato a bit angry about this)
Does not need to be declined with the truth
Plato believed in one moral “truth”
Allegory of the cave: We are stuck in a cave, and there is a fire behind us
and all that we see are the shadows from the real things, when we are going
outside, we can see the reality and see what really matters in life
Only a small, smart elite can see this truth
“The Republic”: Plato write a proposal for what society should look like
Citizens were allowed to their class in society, and would dedicate themselves
to their own natural gifts
Society should be based on reason
We would be led by philosopher kings, use their wisdom and look inside at
what is best for the community
Strict division:
1. Philosopher-kings = those who see everything
2. Guardians and traders
Ideas were later criticized by e.g. Popper
4
Lecture 1: Introduction
The importance of political rhetoric
No politics without persuasion (=overtuiging)
Different actors have different vision
Reason: uncertainty
Persuasion by speech vs. persuasion by force
Persuasion is “a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince
other people to change their own attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue
through the transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice”
= een symbolisch proces waarin communicatoren andere mensen
proberen te overtuigen hun eigen houding of gedrag met betrekking tot
een kwestie te veranderen door het overbrengen van een boodschap in
een sfeer van vrije keuze
“Democracy = is distinguished as a form of governance by the extent of
persuasion relative to coercion" (Mutz, Sniderman & Brody, 1996)
= democratie onderscheidt zich als bestuursvorm door de mate van
overreding ten opzichte van dwang
The fundamental political skill?
One of the most important aspects
Persuasion is very important
What is the difference between persuasion by speech and persuasion by force?
Persuasion by speech:
Most powerful
Used by political actors even in systems that aren’t democratic
Gebruikt door politieke actoren, zelfs in systemen die niet democratisch zijn.
Persuasion by speech has a voluntary aspect/decision to accept what this
person is saying/to be convinced
You internalize it more, that’s why it is the most powerful
Persuasion by force (geweld):
By using violence/to threaten
1
,What is rhetoric?
Where does Greek ‘retoriketekhne’ come from?
Rhetor: speaker
Thekne: art
Retoriketekhne: the art of speaking, the art to persuade others
What does studying rhetoric mean?
= Learning the practical skills of persuasion
= Studying the persuasiveness of speech
Not limited to spoken words, also written word, visuals
Political rhetoric
Persuasion in politics: A way of achieving or keeping office, of use resources in specific
ways, of weakening opponents or sustaining alliances
Een manier om een functie te bereiken of te behouden, om middelen op specifieke
manieren te gebruiken, om tegenstanders te verzwakken of bondgenootschappen in
stand te houden
Many areas of rhetorical studies (law, marketing, organization)
We look at the persuasion in the political realm
Not limited to politicians:
Emma Watson in United Nation for gender equality, Steven Van Gucht in the
pandemic, journalist at Fox News
Exercise - Martin Luther King speech
“Most famous persuasive speech in history”
Martin Luther King – I have a dream
Activist leader of civil rights movement
August 1963
March on Washington for jobs and freedom
100 years after Emancipation Proclamation (Lincoln)
Task: Do you find the speech persuasive?
Yes,
He offers solutions to the problems
It is an emotional speech, gives elements of hope
Powerful words
He tries to create a community, not only with black people
2
, His credibility as a person: Who he is, displaying eloquence, expertise, reason
Arousal of emotion (metaphors)
Convincing arguments
Use of rhetorical devices (repetitions, allusions, rhyme)
How he speaks
The field of political rhetoric, a diverse research field?
Different backgrounds, different questions
Linguistics (rhetorical figures)
Psychology (emotions vs. the cognitive)
Political science (questions of power)
Communication science (mass media)
Each with their own terminology & research methods
Difficulty: All these different fields don’t talk to each other
Rhetoric
Rhetoric, a contested notion
With what is rhetoric often associated?
Words often associated with rhetoric: “mere rhetoric” & “empty rhetoric”
Rhetoric is contrasted with reality
Rhetoric is often associate with danger
At the same time: no democracy without free speech?
Essence is that we think that rhetoric is a good thing
Everyone is allowed to express what they think, express their opinion
Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy
Greece, 500BC
From aristocracy to democracy
Aristocracy: Only rich people can participate in the decision making
Democracy: Everyone can participate in the decision making
Highly participatory system
Status of being citizen comes with obligations (de status van burger brengt
verplichtingen met zich mee)
Rhetoric skills were important, everyone can speak up in the Ecclesia
Teachers: sophist
Sophist instructed the people in the techniques of persuasive rhetoric
Cultural of oral transmission: People were used to listening to each other
3
, Politican: Any individual or group that seeks to promote a political position, whether inside or
outside formal institutions = elk individu of groep die een politiek standpunt probeert te
bevorderen, binnen of buiten formele instellingen.
Plato
Who is Plato?
He didn’t like the turn to democracy (democracy = een manier van regeren die
afhangt van de wil van het volk)
He is an aristocrat deeply dismayed by the teaching of the sophist = Hij is een
aristocraat die diep geschokt is door de leer van de sofist...
What did he say/do in his life?
“Rhetoric is empty and dangerous”
It can persuade most people of anything
Rhetoric = a ‘rudderless boat’; “sophistries”
- Sophistries: Tricks to convince people of things that are not true
A technique you better don’t use
Can do bad instead of good (death of his mentor Socrates)
Socrates = needed to drink poison (Plato a bit angry about this)
Does not need to be declined with the truth
Plato believed in one moral “truth”
Allegory of the cave: We are stuck in a cave, and there is a fire behind us
and all that we see are the shadows from the real things, when we are going
outside, we can see the reality and see what really matters in life
Only a small, smart elite can see this truth
“The Republic”: Plato write a proposal for what society should look like
Citizens were allowed to their class in society, and would dedicate themselves
to their own natural gifts
Society should be based on reason
We would be led by philosopher kings, use their wisdom and look inside at
what is best for the community
Strict division:
1. Philosopher-kings = those who see everything
2. Guardians and traders
Ideas were later criticized by e.g. Popper
4
