Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative Quantitative
Understanding how and why Measuring how many and causality
Theory emergent (inductive) Theory testing (deductive)
Words & text Variables & numbers
Participants’ view Researchers’ view
Proximity Distance
Process Static
Unstructured/open Structures
Rich, deep data Hard, ‘reliable’ data
Interpretation Measuring
Ontology: assumption about the nature of reality
Ontological beliefs influence both the kind of topics you want to research and the way you
want to do research. Ontological beliefs influence epistemological beliefs, i.e. beliefs about
how we can acquire knowledge.
Two major positions in social science: objectivism and constructionism.
Epistemology
Objectivism -> empiricism
Constructionism -> interpretivism
Ontology + epistemology = paradigm
,Realism/Objectivism
Positivism Post positivism
There is a reality that’s independent. We There is a reality that’s independent. We
can know it by using our senses. can know it, but not completely
Quantitative research Quantitative research, also sometimes
qualitative analysis
Idealism/Constructionism
Interpretivism Constructionism Critical theory Action research The end for
(participatory) now, poem
(Social) reality is (Social) reality is (Social) reality (Social) reality is (Social) reality
constructed, we constructed, we is constructed, constructed, is constructed,
can interpret can reconstruct researchers are researchers are and we can
how people and deconstruct part of it as well part of it as well never really
attribute their and have to and have to know it
meaning to the constructions. take their take their
world. responsibility responsibility.
People should
be involved in
research
Interpretive Structural forms Creative
forms of of analysis: research
analysis: Narrative techniques
Thematic analysis,
analysis, Discourse
Phenomenology analysis,
Semiotics
Quality of research
One’s paradigm influences one’s beliefs of what good research is.
‘Good research’ – quality criteria implied in (post)positivism
- Findings are an accurate reflection of reality -> validity
- Another researcher will be able to conduct the same research -> replicability
- When another researcher will conduct the research, the results will be the same ->
reliability
Criteria for good qualitative research
Adopt from quantitative approaches or formulate different ones?
Trustworthiness
- Credibility – confidence in the ‘truth’ of findings
- Transferability – showing that the findings have applicability in other contexts
- Dependability – showing that the findings are consistent and could be repeated
- Confirmability – a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study
are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation or interest
, Credibility
- Prolonged engagement & persistent observation – spending enough time and
focusing on aspects relevant to the issue being studied
- Triangulation – using multiple data sources in an investigation to produce
understanding
- Peer debriefing – exposing oneself to a disinterested peer in a manner paralleling an
analytical session and for purpose of exploring aspects of the inquiry that might
otherwise remail only implicit.
- Negative case analysis – analysis of deviant cases may revise, broaden, and confirm
the patterns emerging from data analysis
- Referential adequacy – checking interpretations against data that have not been
analyzed yet
- Member-checking (respond validation) – data, analytic categories, interpretations,
and conclusions are tested with members of those groups from whom the data were
originally obtained
Transferability
- Thick description - By describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail, the reader can
begin to evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn are transferable to
other times, settings, situations, and people.
Dependability
- Inquiry audit - External audits involve having a researcher not involved in the
research process examine both the process and product of the research study. This is
only possible if enough detail about the process is available, and if data are stored
well.
Confirmability
- Confirmability audit - External audits involve having a researcher not involved in the
research process examine both the process and product of the research study (in
order to assess if results are influenced by the researcher)
- Audit trail – transparent description of the research steps
- Triangulation - Rather than seeing triangulation as a method for validation or
verification, qualitative researchers generally use this technique to ensure that an
account is rich, robust, comprehensive and well-developed.
- Reflexibility - Attitude of attending systematically to the context of knowledge
construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at every step of the research
process.
Or should we be more concerned about the usefulness of the outcomes instead of the
quality of the research? – Action research and other traditions
Qualitative Quantitative
Understanding how and why Measuring how many and causality
Theory emergent (inductive) Theory testing (deductive)
Words & text Variables & numbers
Participants’ view Researchers’ view
Proximity Distance
Process Static
Unstructured/open Structures
Rich, deep data Hard, ‘reliable’ data
Interpretation Measuring
Ontology: assumption about the nature of reality
Ontological beliefs influence both the kind of topics you want to research and the way you
want to do research. Ontological beliefs influence epistemological beliefs, i.e. beliefs about
how we can acquire knowledge.
Two major positions in social science: objectivism and constructionism.
Epistemology
Objectivism -> empiricism
Constructionism -> interpretivism
Ontology + epistemology = paradigm
,Realism/Objectivism
Positivism Post positivism
There is a reality that’s independent. We There is a reality that’s independent. We
can know it by using our senses. can know it, but not completely
Quantitative research Quantitative research, also sometimes
qualitative analysis
Idealism/Constructionism
Interpretivism Constructionism Critical theory Action research The end for
(participatory) now, poem
(Social) reality is (Social) reality is (Social) reality (Social) reality is (Social) reality
constructed, we constructed, we is constructed, constructed, is constructed,
can interpret can reconstruct researchers are researchers are and we can
how people and deconstruct part of it as well part of it as well never really
attribute their and have to and have to know it
meaning to the constructions. take their take their
world. responsibility responsibility.
People should
be involved in
research
Interpretive Structural forms Creative
forms of of analysis: research
analysis: Narrative techniques
Thematic analysis,
analysis, Discourse
Phenomenology analysis,
Semiotics
Quality of research
One’s paradigm influences one’s beliefs of what good research is.
‘Good research’ – quality criteria implied in (post)positivism
- Findings are an accurate reflection of reality -> validity
- Another researcher will be able to conduct the same research -> replicability
- When another researcher will conduct the research, the results will be the same ->
reliability
Criteria for good qualitative research
Adopt from quantitative approaches or formulate different ones?
Trustworthiness
- Credibility – confidence in the ‘truth’ of findings
- Transferability – showing that the findings have applicability in other contexts
- Dependability – showing that the findings are consistent and could be repeated
- Confirmability – a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study
are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation or interest
, Credibility
- Prolonged engagement & persistent observation – spending enough time and
focusing on aspects relevant to the issue being studied
- Triangulation – using multiple data sources in an investigation to produce
understanding
- Peer debriefing – exposing oneself to a disinterested peer in a manner paralleling an
analytical session and for purpose of exploring aspects of the inquiry that might
otherwise remail only implicit.
- Negative case analysis – analysis of deviant cases may revise, broaden, and confirm
the patterns emerging from data analysis
- Referential adequacy – checking interpretations against data that have not been
analyzed yet
- Member-checking (respond validation) – data, analytic categories, interpretations,
and conclusions are tested with members of those groups from whom the data were
originally obtained
Transferability
- Thick description - By describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail, the reader can
begin to evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn are transferable to
other times, settings, situations, and people.
Dependability
- Inquiry audit - External audits involve having a researcher not involved in the
research process examine both the process and product of the research study. This is
only possible if enough detail about the process is available, and if data are stored
well.
Confirmability
- Confirmability audit - External audits involve having a researcher not involved in the
research process examine both the process and product of the research study (in
order to assess if results are influenced by the researcher)
- Audit trail – transparent description of the research steps
- Triangulation - Rather than seeing triangulation as a method for validation or
verification, qualitative researchers generally use this technique to ensure that an
account is rich, robust, comprehensive and well-developed.
- Reflexibility - Attitude of attending systematically to the context of knowledge
construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at every step of the research
process.
Or should we be more concerned about the usefulness of the outcomes instead of the
quality of the research? – Action research and other traditions
