Social Networks
HOORCOLLEGES
2023
SOCIAL NETWORKS 1
, Hoorcollege 1
Ties relationship between two persons, organizations, countries etc. A tie can be positive
or negative, it can be friendship, economic etc.
How do relationships emerge?
• Focus theory (Feld)
Who interacts with whom is not a question of preferences but of extra-individual
conditions such as meeting opportunities and foci for contacts.
• All those related to a focus tend to form a cluster; loose connections between
clusters are either based on less constraining foci, or not on foci at all.
• “A focus/foci is de ned as a social, psychological, legal, or physical entity around
which joint activities are organized”(Feld, 1981:1016)
and:
• “Individuals whose activities are organized around the same foci will tend to
become interpersonally tied and form a cluster.” (op. cit. 1016)
• So, if individuals share the same focus they tend to become related to each other.
• And: when individuals are related, they tend to create foci to organize their joint
activities.
Example exam question 1.1
Sometimes, similarities in attributes between individuals are translated into foci (Feld,
page 1019).
Give an example of a focus where this is the case (and explain).
Characteristics of foci
• degree of forced interactions, time spent, compatibility with other foci
• Size
• Degree of local boundedness
• Degree to which boundaries exist
• Foci can also overlap, e.g. if people work in their neighborhood
SOCIAL NETWORKS 2
, • Balance theory (Granovetter)
• Individuals strive for (cognitive) balance, also in relationships. When I like you,
I prefer you to like me (balance).
• A network is balanced if the product of the signs of the
relationships is positive
• Therefore: networks have a tendency for closure…
• Balance theory starts from triads (triadic closure), but more
complicated networks are possible (eg tetrads)
Focus theory vs balance theory
Focus theory and balance theory give different answers to the question:
When does network closure emerge (or where do new ties form)?
- Balance theory:
The focal actor strives for cogni ve balance
- Focus theory:
Actors become involved in rela onships because they share at least one focus
—> Focus theory can be applied to large networks. Balance theory ts best in the analysis
of small networks (triads)
• Focus theory argues for instance that when network members are all in the same
focus, and if this focus is more restrictive, the network members will be more
interconnected – balance theory does not take into account any contextual condition
Bridges and Local bridges
•Bridges (rare): A relationship/tie between two
disconnected networks.
•Local bridge
Without the local bridge, the distance between the -now
connected- nodes would be much larger
Example exam question 1.2
Explain in your own words what are local bridges in a network? Can they
be explained by Focus Theory? And by Balance Theory?
SOCIAL NETWORKS 3
, • Social capital
• A theory on the creation of and returns to relationships
• Resources are a necessity to guarantee and safeguard living conditions – and, more
general, to attain individual goals
• Social resources are 2nd order resources – they consist not of own resources but the
resources of those one knows.
• Important difference between social capital and other forms of capital: the rights of
ownership of social capital are not by one person, yet by at least two persons.
• The value of social capital depends on the value of 2nd order resources and is related
to the costs which would have been made to achieve the goal via/with other resources.
Assumption:
• Individuals are the producers of their own well-being and to produce that well
being they employ their social capital
• People invest in relationships with others while taking expected future bene ts
into account
• Social capital is based largely on alleged reciprocity
When I help them, they will probably help me in the future (future bene ts).
Dimensions/elements of social capital
• No matter what kind of help is provided – social capital can be described in the
following dimensions:
• the presence of others
• their ability to help
• their willingness to help
• the structure of the network, e.g. the particular position of the focal actor ‘ego’
(“structure is an asset in it’s own right” Ron Burt, 2001)
Interethnic contacts
Forms of Immigrant Integration
• Social integration contacts between immigrants and na ves (“interethnic contacts”)
interethnic contacts are a form of social capital (resources, information)
Contacts between immigrants and natives decrease prejudice/con ict and increase
social cohesion
SOCIAL NETWORKS 4
HOORCOLLEGES
2023
SOCIAL NETWORKS 1
, Hoorcollege 1
Ties relationship between two persons, organizations, countries etc. A tie can be positive
or negative, it can be friendship, economic etc.
How do relationships emerge?
• Focus theory (Feld)
Who interacts with whom is not a question of preferences but of extra-individual
conditions such as meeting opportunities and foci for contacts.
• All those related to a focus tend to form a cluster; loose connections between
clusters are either based on less constraining foci, or not on foci at all.
• “A focus/foci is de ned as a social, psychological, legal, or physical entity around
which joint activities are organized”(Feld, 1981:1016)
and:
• “Individuals whose activities are organized around the same foci will tend to
become interpersonally tied and form a cluster.” (op. cit. 1016)
• So, if individuals share the same focus they tend to become related to each other.
• And: when individuals are related, they tend to create foci to organize their joint
activities.
Example exam question 1.1
Sometimes, similarities in attributes between individuals are translated into foci (Feld,
page 1019).
Give an example of a focus where this is the case (and explain).
Characteristics of foci
• degree of forced interactions, time spent, compatibility with other foci
• Size
• Degree of local boundedness
• Degree to which boundaries exist
• Foci can also overlap, e.g. if people work in their neighborhood
SOCIAL NETWORKS 2
, • Balance theory (Granovetter)
• Individuals strive for (cognitive) balance, also in relationships. When I like you,
I prefer you to like me (balance).
• A network is balanced if the product of the signs of the
relationships is positive
• Therefore: networks have a tendency for closure…
• Balance theory starts from triads (triadic closure), but more
complicated networks are possible (eg tetrads)
Focus theory vs balance theory
Focus theory and balance theory give different answers to the question:
When does network closure emerge (or where do new ties form)?
- Balance theory:
The focal actor strives for cogni ve balance
- Focus theory:
Actors become involved in rela onships because they share at least one focus
—> Focus theory can be applied to large networks. Balance theory ts best in the analysis
of small networks (triads)
• Focus theory argues for instance that when network members are all in the same
focus, and if this focus is more restrictive, the network members will be more
interconnected – balance theory does not take into account any contextual condition
Bridges and Local bridges
•Bridges (rare): A relationship/tie between two
disconnected networks.
•Local bridge
Without the local bridge, the distance between the -now
connected- nodes would be much larger
Example exam question 1.2
Explain in your own words what are local bridges in a network? Can they
be explained by Focus Theory? And by Balance Theory?
SOCIAL NETWORKS 3
, • Social capital
• A theory on the creation of and returns to relationships
• Resources are a necessity to guarantee and safeguard living conditions – and, more
general, to attain individual goals
• Social resources are 2nd order resources – they consist not of own resources but the
resources of those one knows.
• Important difference between social capital and other forms of capital: the rights of
ownership of social capital are not by one person, yet by at least two persons.
• The value of social capital depends on the value of 2nd order resources and is related
to the costs which would have been made to achieve the goal via/with other resources.
Assumption:
• Individuals are the producers of their own well-being and to produce that well
being they employ their social capital
• People invest in relationships with others while taking expected future bene ts
into account
• Social capital is based largely on alleged reciprocity
When I help them, they will probably help me in the future (future bene ts).
Dimensions/elements of social capital
• No matter what kind of help is provided – social capital can be described in the
following dimensions:
• the presence of others
• their ability to help
• their willingness to help
• the structure of the network, e.g. the particular position of the focal actor ‘ego’
(“structure is an asset in it’s own right” Ron Burt, 2001)
Interethnic contacts
Forms of Immigrant Integration
• Social integration contacts between immigrants and na ves (“interethnic contacts”)
interethnic contacts are a form of social capital (resources, information)
Contacts between immigrants and natives decrease prejudice/con ict and increase
social cohesion
SOCIAL NETWORKS 4
