University of Minnesota: BIOL 1901 Biology 150 Notes,100% CORRECT

University of Minnesota: BIOL 1901 Biology 150 Notes Properties of organisms: o Highly ordered o Use energy o Genetic information o Reproduce o Composed of cells • (about) ~ 1.5 million species named • Up to 100 million total species • Classified into 3 domains or 6 kingdoms o Kingdoms: Plantae, fungi, Animalia, Protista, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria o Domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya CELL THEORY • All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. • Cells arise from pre-existing cells. • Cells contain the hereditary information of the organism of which they are a part. SCIENTIFIC METHOD Observation Question Hypothesis Test!!! Results Conclusions • Covalent bonds- sharing electrons • Ionic bonds- giving/taking electrons to complete the outer ring in elements. (lose an electron= (+), add an electron = (-) • Hydrogen bonds- fairly weak, bonds that attract each other (hold together DNA) (they give water very important properties) • pH scale: (measure of H+ concentration) 0-14… 7 is neutral, below is acidic, above is basic/alkaline. Acid- increases concentration of H+. o Pure water= [H] = 0. • Natural Selection- how evolution occurs. (Heredity and Environment) • Evolution- change of characteristics of a population over time • Speciation- When natural selection causes a population of a species to diverge and form a new species. • Fitness- an organism ability to produce offspring • Adaptation- a trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment • Chromosome theory of inheritance- (Theador Boveri) Heredity and Gene Info is inside of cells, located in chromosomes (contains DNA). • Central Dogma- CH 3 RAT… • Four Building Blocks: o A, T, G, C *DNA CAN BE COPIED Chapter 2: Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life • BASIC chemistry • Structure of water molecules • pH scale Isotopes- each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element. Ion- an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. Helium  A, N= 2 A, M= 4 1. * Explain the difference between protons, neutrons, and electrons. Fig. 2.1. o Protons are (+1), mass of 1, nucleus o Neutrons are (0), mass of 1, nucleus o Electrons are (-), mass of 1/1,840, electron cloud o Protons + Neutrons is atomic mass, mass number= protons o Protons=Electron (unless it’s an ion) 2. Explain the difference between ions and isotopes. P. 56, 57 o Ions gain or lose electrons o Isotopes gain or lose neutrons 3. * Explain the difference between atomic number and atomic mass. Fig. 2.2 o Atomic Number= # of protons (or electrons- unless it’s an ion) o Atomic Mass= Protons + Neutrons 4. Identify the number of electrons in the valence shell of an atom based on the atomic number, atomic mass, and overall charge. Fig. 2.1. 5. * Explain how covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds work and distinguish among these types of bonds. Figs. 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6. o Covalent bonds- sharing electrons o Ionic bonds- giving/taking electrons to complete the outer ring in elements. (lose an electron= (+), add an electron = (-) o Hydrogen bonds- fairly weak, bonds that attract each other (hold together DNA) (they give water very important properties) 6. Predict the number of covalent bonds formed between atoms based on atomic number or number of electrons in valence shell. Fig. 2.8. o The most you can have is 4, least-0 7. Distinguish between solutions that are acidic or alkaline (basic) and compare + concentration of protons (H ) in solutions with different pH values. Fig. 2.16. o Ph Scale; 0-14, 7 is neutral. o 0-7 acidic, and 7-14 is BASIC/alkaline o The # on the pH scale= the concentration of protons in solutions. o PURE WATER= 10-7 (Because its neutral) o Acid- increases concentration of H+ o Base- decreases concentration of H+ o 0 is the highest concentration of protons, 14 is lowest o If pH levels are off: ▪ Disrupt protein structure ▪ Shut down important chemical reactions ▪ Break down cell membranes 8. Chapter 3: RAT (molecules/proteins) • Polymers- a bunch of amino acids linked together. • Proteins are formed in ribosomes- the central dogma of molecular biology Condensation reaction- a reaction in which two molecules combine to form a single molecule. A small molecule, often water, is usually removed during a condensation reaction. Peptide bond- The bond that holds together the two amino acids (H2O is released during condensation reaction- forming a (covalent-double bond like) Peptide bond) Hemoglobin has to have four chains of amino acids to function * Distinguish among primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of organization in proteins. P. 88. Protein structures: o Primary- ribosomes and DNA determine its structure o Secondary- (alpha helixes and pleated sheet) o Tertiary- 3D shape or structure (Many bonds involved in the shape) o Quaternary- a protein consisting of more than one chain of amino acids • *Explain the roles of condensation reactions, peptide bonds and ribosomes in the formation of proteins. Figs. 3.4 and 3.5. o A ribosome is a complex protein made of two subunits. It houses the mRNA and tRNA strands as they work through the process of translation. tRNA molecules carry in the amino acids. The peptide bonds that link amino acids are formed by the release of water molecules. • * Explain the “Central Dogma” of molecular biology (including the roles of transcription and translation). o The central dogma of molecular biology describes the two-step process, transcription and translation, by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA → (m)RNA → protein. Transcription is the synthesis of an RNA copy of a segment of DNA. RNA is synthesized by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Chapter 4: DNA • In humans- 23 pairs of chromosomes. (XX= women XY= men.) o 22 pairs of autosomes o 1 pair of sex chromosomes • DNA of 1 cell= about 6 ft. o DNA consists of phosphates, sugar (deoxyribose), and nitrogenous bases (A, G, C, T) o * Describe the structure of DNA including the position of phosphates, sugar (deoxyribose), and nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine). • Identify a nucleotide. Fig. 4.1. • * Explain complimentary base pairing and the antiparallel nature of DNA. Fig. 4.6. o (Each strand is flipped; parallel but opposite orientation) • * Explain the role of hydrogen bonds in DNA structure. Fig. 4.5. o Hydrogen bonds form between G-C and A-T pairs (Adenine will form 2 H bonds with thymine, and guanine will form 3 H bonds with cytosine. The 3rd bond in C-G makes it stronger than the A-T pairs. • *Identify differences in the structure of DNA and RNA. P. 101. o mRNA uses Uracil with Adenine, but T still pairs with A. o RNA tends to be single stranded. o The sugar in the sugar-phosphate backbone of RNA is ribose, not deoxyribose as in DNA. o Thymine does not exist in RNA. (Uracil with A) CHAPTER 5: Carbohydrates • * Explain the role of carbohydrates in cells. PP. 113-116. o (They serve as a substrate for synthesizing more-complex molecules) o Serves as a precursor to larger molecules, they provide fibrous structural materials (strength and elasticity), indicate cell identity, and stores chemical energy. • Sugars can be found in linear or ring form. • Glucose- a simple sugar  • Sugar molecules are linked through condensation reaction which releases an H2O molecule in the process. (Peptide bonds-which are covalent) • Sucrose- common table sugar • * Explain the molecular differences that distinguish carbohydrates from other molecules. PP. 108, 109. o polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. (Contains them-makes them carbs.) o Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are monomers of carbohydrates. The number of carbon atoms varies among monosaccharides. o Trioses- three carbon sugars o Ribose- acts as a building block for nucleotides, it has five carbons and is called Pentose. o Hexose- a six carbon sugar o They vary in the special arrangement of their atoms. • * Distinguish between mono-, di-, and polysaccharides. PP. 108-111. o Disaccharides (two sugars link together) are a group of sugars composed of two monosaccharide groups linked together. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of numerous monosaccharides c ombined through the loss of water molecules.) (THEY HAVE TO HAVE AT LEAST Two OH’s) o Polysaccharides- a carbohydrate (e.g., starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together. (Their properties are determined by branching of amino acids. • * Explain the significance of condensation reactions in the formation of polysaccharides. Fig. 5.5. o Sugars are linked together through condensation reactions. o When you link two sugar molecules together, a water molecule is released. CHAPTER 6: Lipids • Lipids- Hydrophobic= don’t mix with water o 3 Parts- Fats, steroids, and phospholipids • Steroids: o Cholesterol and Hormones o THEY HAVE A FOUR RING STRUCTURE • 1. Define hydrophobic. P. 1 • 2. Distinguish among fats, steroids, and phospholipids. PP. 121, 122. • 3. * Describe the functional role of fat molecules as well as their overall molecular structure. P. 122. o They are nonpolar molecules composed of three fatty acids that are linked to a three-carbon molecule called glycerol. They can be called triacylglycerols or triglycerides. (If the glycerol-linked fatty acids are polyunsaturated, then the triacylglycerols are liquid and called oil.) They form when a dehydration reaction occurs between a hydroxyl group of glycerol and the carboxyl group of free fatty acid (When fatty acids are not attached to other molecules, they are referred to as free fatty acids). o They provide strong chemical energy, lipids act as pigments that capture or respond to sunlight, serve as signals between cells, form waterproof coatings on leaves and skin, and act as vitamins used in many cellular processes. Most prominent function is their role in cell membranes. But not all lipids can form membranes. • 4. * Explain the concepts of saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats. Fig. 6.1. o Hydrogen chains that consist of only single bonds between the carbons are saturated. o If one or more double bonds exist in the hydrocarbon chains, then its unsaturated. Bonds on the same side. o Trans fats- hydrogen bonds on opposite sides • 5. * Describe the functional role of phospholipids as well as their overall molecular structure. P. 122. o They consist of a glycerol that is linked to a phosphate group and two hydrocarbon chains of either isoprenoids or fatty acids. o They are crucial components of the plasma membrane. (the isoprenoid chains in archaeal phospholipids provide greater membrane stability and protection in the extreme environments inhabited by certain archaea.) • 6. Describe the basic structure of cell membranes including the “Fluid Mosaic” model of membrane structure. Fig. 6.17. • 7. * Distinguish between diffusion and osmosis. Pp. 127, 128. o DIFFUSION- spontaneous movement of molecules and ions (equilibrium should be established at the end of diffusion= image below) o OSMOSIS- The diffusion of (molecules) across a membrane from a region of low solute (high water concentration) to a region of high solute (Low water concentration). For osmosis to occur, the solute would not be able to pass through the membrane. (Not Active) • 8. Explain the selectively permeable nature of membranes. Fig. 6.8. • 9. Distinguish between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions and explain how a cell is likely to react when placed in each. Fig. 6.14. • 10. * Distinguish between facilitated diffusion and active transport. Fig. 6.26. FACILITATED DIFFUSION- passive movement (diffusion) of a substance across a membrane with the assistance of transmembrane carrier proteins or channel proteins ACTIVE TRANSPORT- The movement of ions or molecules across a membrane in a single direction, often against a gradient. It requires energy from (hydrolysis of ATP) and assistance of transport protein. ▪ When a solution is hypotonic, the cell will burst, hypertonic= shriveled cell Chapter 8- Energy and Enzymes • *Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions. P. 173 and Fig. 8.5. o Exergonic- Chemical reactions are spontaneous when (the change in Gibbs free energy) is less than zero. (Higher energy reactantslower energy products) (RELEASES ENERGY) o Endergonic- Reactions are nonspontaneous when (the change in Gibbs free energy) is greater than zero. (Lower energy reactantsHigher energy products) (REQUIRES ENERGY) o When (the change in Gibbs free energy) is 0, reactions are at equilibrium • *Explain how ATP is used as a source of energy to drive endergonic reactions. Fig. 8.8. o ATP= adenosine triphosphate- it has high potential energy o The energy that is released when ATP is hydrolyzed may be used to transfer the cleaved {split (a molecule) by breaking a particular chemical bond.} phosphate to a target molecule, called a substrate (the substance on which an enzyme reacts.) ▪ The potential energy of the reactant is increased. ▪ Exergonic reaction- ATP releases a phosphate, takes 1 H from H2O, and turns into ADP + an inorganic phosphate + ENERGY (7.s kcal/mole of ATP) • *Explain how enzymes function as biological catalysts (including the role of the active site and the effect of enzymes on activation energy). Fig. 8.11 o Enzymes are (biological) catalysts. They speed reaction rates but don’t affect the change of free energy of the reaction. (THEY TEND TO BE PROTEINS) o Enzymes have active sites that bring (specific) substrates together and may change shape to stabilize the transition site. o Activation energy is the amount of kinetic energy required to reach the transition state of a reaction. o Enzymes speed up a reaction by lowering the activation energy, often with the help of cofactors, coenzymes, or prosthetic groups. o They catalyze SPECIFIC reactions o They are affected by pH, temp, etc.… • Distinguish between competitive inhibition and allosteric regulation. Fig. 8.16. • Active site- part of an enzyme where substrates fit in (bind) and also where chemical reactions take place. • Explain how feedback inhibition regulates the rates of enzymatic reactions. Fig. 8.18. o Each of these reactions is facilitated by an enzyme. o When enough ATP is produced, it fits into an enzyme and production stops. EXAM #1 STUDY GUIDE Predict number of covalent bonds based on number of electrons in valence shell o Unlike ionic bonds, covalent bonds are often formed between atoms where one of the atoms cannot easily attain a noble gas electron shell configuration through the loss or gain of one or two electrons. In such cases, it is easier to 'share' valence electrons. Describe the molecular structure of water. o Oxygen holds onto to electrons stronger than the hydrogens. The Oxygen has a partially (-) charge and the hydrogens have a partially (+). Describe the structure of, and differentiate between, saturated and unsaturated fats and phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group that is modified by an alcohol. The phosphate group is the negatively-charged polar head, which is hydrophilic. The fatty acid chains are the uncharged, nonpolar tails, which are hydrophobic. HYDROPHOBIC- tending to repel or fail to mix with water. HYDROPHILIC- tending to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water. Identify structural features of carbohydrates. A carbohydrate is a simple sugar. Its basic structure is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with generally twice the hydrogen as carbon and oxygen. In its simplest form, a carbohydrate is a chain of sugar molecules called monosaccharides. The general empirical structure for carbohydrates is (CH2O). Monosaccharides, which are simple sugars that serve as fuel molecules as well as fundamental constituents of living organisms, are the simplest carbohydrates, and are required as energy sources. The most commonly known ones are perhaps glucose and fructose. Explain (briefly) how penicillin works. o Competitive inhibition occurs when molecules very similar to the substrate molecules bind to the active site and prevent binding of the actual substrate. Penicillin, for example, is a competitive inhibitor that blocks the active site of an enzyme that many bacteria use to construct their cell walls. o Noncompetitive Inhibition occurs when an inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site. In some cases of noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor is thought to bind to the enzyme in such a way as to physically block the normal active site. In other instances, the binding of the inhibitor is believed to change the shape of the enzyme molecule, thereby deforming its active site and preventing it from reacting with its substrate. This latter type of noncompetitive inhibition is called allosteric inhibition; the place where the inhibitor binds to the enzyme is called the allosteric site. ▪ This can increase (Increase in size) the enzymes activity or decrease the activity (decrease in size). Chapter 9 – Cellular Respiration • Understand how living cells convert the energy in food to ATP. o Through cellular respiration • Identify the importance of oxygen in most organisms. • Describe the structure of mitochondria and distinguish the intermembrane space and matrix. Fig. 9.8. o Mitochondria have two membranes (outer and inner) {a lot of the reactions of cellular respiration take place} IMS- space between membranes. The middle of them is called the matrix. • * Summarize the location of, and major steps involved in, aerobic cellular respiration including 1) glycolysis, 2) formation of acetyl Co-A, 3) Krebs (citric acid) cycle, and 4) the electron transport chain. Fig. 9.19. o Glycolysis- The splitting apart of sugar molecules. Glucose gets converted to Pyruvate (pyruvic acid). [1 glucose molecule gets converted into to molecules of pyruvate] (2 ATP is produced during glycolysis [along with 2 NADH] and 2 pyruvate) THIS DOESN’T NEED OXYGEN. This process is outside of the mitochondria. o Formation of acetyl- converting pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and turns into Acetyl. (NADH is formed) o Krebs (citric acid) cycle- This occurs within the matrix of the mitochondria. A little bit of ATP is formed along with NADH. (2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2) (doesn’t need oxygen) o Electron transport chain (ETC)- a series of molecules embedded on the inner membrane of mitochondria. This ETC can accept all of these NADH’s formed previously, extract electrons from those NADH’s, and uses those electrons to produce lots of ATP. Oxygen plays a big role in ETC- plays a big role in accepting electrons at the end of the ETC. (If oxygen didn’t accept the electrons than nothing would flow, and ATP would not be produced. • * For each of the four stages listed above, indicate what is needed for the stage to occur and what is produced as a result of that stage. Fig. 9.19. (ABOVE) • Track a single molecule of glucose as it is processed through the stages of aerobic respiration mentioned above. Fig. 9.19. (ABOVE) • Explain the relationships between, and the functional role of, the following as part of aerobic respiration: ADP-ATP; NAD+ -NADH; FAD-FADH2. Fig. 9.19. o Picture… • Explain how the “Chemiosmosis” model works to form ATP. Figs. 9.15, 9.18. o Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. During chemiosmosis, the free energy from the series of reactions that make up the electron transport chain is used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane, establishing an electrochemical gradient. • Distinguish between oxidized and reduced molecules. o Oxidation occurs when a reactant loses electrons during the reaction. Reduction occurs when a reactant gains electrons during the reaction. • Explain how fermentation (anaerobic respiration) results in the formation of ATP and why ethanol is produced as a byproduct of this process. Fig. 9.21. o During alcohol fermentation, yeast cells use up all of the oxygen so fast that instead of using NADH to reduce pyruvate, yeast first converts pyruvate to the two-carbon compound acetaldehyde. This compound then accepts electrons from NADH, forming NAD+, which is required to keep glycolysis going. The addition of electrons forms ethanol as a waste product. Fermentation produces 2 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose metabolized. • Compare and contrast aerobic respiration with fermentation. Fig. 9.20. o Aerobic respiration and fermentation are two processes which are used to provide energy to cells. In aerobic respiration, carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced in the presence of oxygen. Fermentation is the process of energy production in the absence of oxygen. It’s the reactions of glycolysis, it makes NADH. It produces CO2 (ethanol) o NAD+ is regenerated through pyruvate being converted to alcohol or lactic acid. o 2 ATP’s are formed per glucose o Aerobic respiration produces 18 times more ATP than fermentation! Chapter 10 – Photosynthesis 1. Understand the basic structure of chloroplasts and how these organelles are involved in photosynthesis. 2. Be able to distinguish the requirements and products of the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. 3. Understand the roles of light and photosynthetic pigments. 4. Understand how plants convert CO2 to organic compounds. • Describe the structure of chloroplasts and distinguish the thylakoids and stroma. Fig. 10.3. o Plants that photosynthesize often have 40-50 chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The interior is dominated by flattened, sac-like structures called thylakoids, they often occur in interconnected sacks called grana. The space inside a thylakoid is its lumen (The interior of any sac-like structure). The fluid filled space between the thylakoids and the inner membrane is the stroma. • Interpret an absorption spectrum for the pigments mentioned above. Fig. 10.7. o • * Summarize the location of, and major steps involved in, the light-dependent reactions (light reactions) and the light-independent reactions (“dark” reactions, Calvin cycle). o Light reactions- they occur in thylakoids, light energizes electrons in photosynthetic pigments, it produces: ATP, NADPH, and Oxygen PICTURE o Dark reactions (Calvin Cycle)- • * For each stage listed above, indicate what is needed for the stage to occur and what is produced as a result of that stage. • Describe the functional roles of photosystem II, photosystem I, electron transport chain, NADP reductase, and ATP synthase during the light reactions. • Describe the functional roles of RuBP, “Rubisco”, carbon dioxide, and G3P during the light-independent reactions. PP. 224, 225. • Photosynthetic pigments harness light energy. Chlorophyll a (P.P.) is a primary PP, all plants have to have it for photosynthesis. Accessory pigments- chlorophyll b and carotenoids. • PS – photo system, a collection of photosynthetic pigments. (PS1, PS2) o PS1 has slightly different proteins… that’s why they are 1 and 2, o They contain electrons Light strikes the PS1, it causes the electrons to be knocked to a higher energy level and to make their way to NADP reductase. It takes the electron and a proton and NADP to produce NADPH. PS1 has to replace its electron to continue making NADPH, so light drives the electrons from PS2 through the ETC to PS1. The ETC molecules actively transport protons from the stroma to the inter region of the thylakoid, the protons (high concentration) diffuse out of the thylakoid through the enzyme, ATP synthase, to the stroma. While moving through the ATP synthase they produce enough energy to allow the enzyme to link ADP with a P (phosphate) to produce ATP! PS2 gets an electron when the splitting apart of a water molecule produces an electron. It also produces a H and O2. The goal of photosynthesis is to produce sugar. (second phase of photosynthesis) Calvin cycle- dark reactions, which produces glucose. It occurs in the stroma. It requires CO2 and the products of the light reactions. Carbon Fixation- (RuBP) when CO2 makes its way into a chloroplast there’s an enzyme that links RuBP and CO2 Chapter 12 – The Cell Cycle Understand the events that occur during mitosis (especially the condition of the chromosomes during each phase of mitosis). o G1, S (DNA replication or DNA synthesis), G2, MITOSIS, cytokinesis Distinguish between chromosomes, sister chromatids, and homologous chromosomes • Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis. Pp. 253, 254. o Mitosis is the duplication of a nucleus, cytokinesis is the separation of the cell wall. (It’s cell division) • * Summarize the stages of the cell cycle in proper sequence. Fig. 12.3. o   • * Distinguish haploid from diploid; genes from alleles; chromatids from chromosomes; and homologous from non-homologous chromosomes. o Diploid= 2 of each chromosome. Haploid= 1 of each chromosome. Homologous are chromosomes that contain the same genes. Non-homologous chromosomes have different (alleles of different genes) genes. o Alleles- different versions of genes • Identify the distinguishing characteristics of each stage of mitosis (in particular, sketch a diploid cell with three pairs of chromosomes as it passes through each stage of mitosis). Fig. 12.5. • Explain the differences in cytokinesis in plant and animal cells. Fig. 12.8. o Animal cells- it splits the cell membrane , while in plants it forms a new cell wall and splits in half. • INTERPHASE- time before mitosis (G1, S, G2) Chapter 13 - Meiosis 1. Understand the events that occur during meiosis I and II (especially the condition of the chromosomes during each phase of meiosis). 2. Understand how meiosis results in genetic variation in populations. • Crossing over is the exchange of genes between two chromosomes, resulting in non-identical chromatids that comprise the genetic material of gametes. This process occurs during Prophase I of Meiosis, just prior to chromosome alignment and splitting of the cell. • Telophase and cytokinesis- forms a total of 4, haploid nuclei o The new cells are genetically different. • Maternal Chromosomes come from mother whereas Paternal comes from Father. Maternal Chromosomes in humans will always have an X chromosome as sex chromosome in normal circumstances whereas Paternal Chromosomes can have a X or a Y as Sex chromosome. • * Identify the different outcomes of meiosis versus mitosis. Fig. 13.9. o You get two identical cells from mitosis, while meiosis produces 4 gametes that each have a different combination of genes. In meiosis they have 1 chromatid, ½ the number of chromosomes that the parent cell had, and each gamete has distinct chromatids. • * Identify the distinguishing characteristics of each stage of meiosis I and II (in particular, sketch a diploid cell with three pairs of chromosomes as it passes through each stage of meiosis). Fig. 13.7. • Explain the implications of 1) “crossing over”; 2) independent assortment of chromosomes; and 3) having two sexes. Pp. 281, 282. • Calculate the number of combinations of alleles in cells produced by meiosis based on independent assortment of chromosomes. P. 282. o You can have 8 combinations o LOOK AT DIAGRAM (UP) • Non-disjunction- when chromosomes don’t divide like they should (too many or too little) o Chromosomes fail to move to opposite poles of the cell during anaphase, causing genetic mutations. • Crossing over happens during PROPHASE EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE (Chapters 9,10,12,13) • The major stages of cellular respiration, including where they occur, what is produced at each stage, and the process of producing ATP by chemiosmosis. You should also be able to make connections among the various components of cellular respiration. • Compare and contrast the overall processes of aerobic cell respiration and fermentation. o (aerobic means that it requires oxygen. Fermentation begins the same as cellular respiration - with glycolysis. Because fermentation does not use oxygen, it cannot do the electron transport chain. This means that fermentation is far less efficient at making ATP than cellular respiration is.) Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. The products are organic acids, gases, or alcohol. • The light reactions of photosynthesis including the pathway of electron flow through and the significance of: PS1, PS2, ETC, and ATP synthase. o CHECK • The functional role of chlorophyll and accessory pigments o They help chlorophyll absorb wavelengths of light that it cannot itself. • Location of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle o Light- dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make GA3P from CO2. • Explain what occurs during the Calvin cycle (“dark reactions”) including the significance of: RuBP, Rubisco, ATP, and NADPH. o rubisco is used in the Calvin cycle to catalyze the first major step of carbon fixation o THE REST IS IN CH.10 NOTES • The stages of mitosis (including the position of chromosomes and chromatids). • Nondisjunction and its potential impacts • Stages of the cell cycle • The significance of, and experimental evidence for, MPF o mitosis-promoting factor o It stimulates the mitotic and meiotic phases of the cell cycle. • The stages of meiosis (including the position of chromosomes and chromatids) 1 • Explain how genetic variation is introduced into sexually-reproducing populations (including being able to calculate the number of chromosome combinations in gametes) o 2 to the power of the number of pairs of chromosomes 2(n) • Differentiate between genes/alleles, chromosomes/chromatids/homologous chromosomes, haploid/diploid o A gene is a heritable factor that contains a specific characteristic, while alleles are alternate forms of genes. • You should also be able to answer questions based on the ALAs completed in class. o Morgan emailed them! REVIWED IN CLASS (LOTS OF PROTONS= ACIDIC “LOW pH LEVEL) (Ethanol fermentation causes bread dough to rise. Yeast organisms consume sugars in the dough and produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the dough, expanding it to a foam.) (Sugar is produced outside of the thylakoids) PEP CARBOXYLASE significance- It helps minimize photorespiration! CHAPTER 34 – PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION • Apical dominance- In botany, apical dominance is the phenomenon whereby the main, central stem of the plant is dominant over (i.e., grows more strongly than) other side stems; on a branch the main stem of the branch is further dominant over its own side branchlets. So, when you cut off the top, the bush grows more outward. (bushier) • Apical meristems- A small cluster of cells where active cell division takes place, this contributes to all the other cells which can cause in increase in the plant length. A meristem at the tip of a plant shoot or root that produces auxin and causes the shoot or root to increase in length. Growth that originates in the apical meristem is called • Meristems- specific regions within plants where active cell division takes place. • Lateral meristems- Ex: trees can grow wider year after year, secondary growth (new, woody tissue of a tree typically) o Vascular cambium (a cylinder of cells found just in the bark of a tree) is one ex. • Plant cell walls- plasmodesmata is holes in the cell walls between adjacent cells. (Plants have cell walls while animal cells don’t) • Epidermis (outermost tissue, ex: bark) in plants consist of: guard cells (“Specialized epidermal cell”-they control weather stomates are opened or closed based on environmental conditions), trichomes (they produce the enzymes that digest insects, minimize loss of water?), and root hairs (Extensions of epidermal cells, they help plants absorb water) • Ground tissue • Vascular tissue (Transport tissues): (Xylem cells are surrounded by phloem cells) o Xylem- (Interior) transport water from roots to shoots and leaves, but it also transports some nutrients (They are dead). {tracheids and vessel elements} Cells specialized for the transport of water. ▪ Tracheids (elongated-narrow cells, they stack vertically, tough sec. cell wall {Pits- little holes that let water pass from cell to cell as it makes its way up a tree) and vessel elements (short and wide, they have pits and perforations, more efficient when it comes to water transportation). o Phloem (Exterior) is the other transport tissue, its responsible for the transport of sugars from source tissues (ex. photosynthetic leaf cells) to sink tissues (They need to be alive!) ▪ EX: Sieve “tube” elements- (stack on top of each other) they provide living cells through which sugars can be moved, typically from leaves, down through leaves to the rest of the plant. ▪ Bark off of tress gets rid of phloem which causes sugars to be made in leaves and being unable to transport it to the roots, the roots die… and then the tree dies. • Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. • Water moves through a plant through transpiration! This is the process where plants absorb water through the roots and then give off water vapor through pores in their leaves. • Secondary cell wall is within the primary cell wall. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • 1. Understand the role of meristematic cells in primary and secondary growth. • 2. Understand the structure and function of tree trunks. • Explain the impact of “Apical Dominance” on plant growth. • * Explain the role of apical meristems during primary growth. P. 718. • * Explain the role of lateral meristems (e.g., vascular cambium) during secondary growth. Pp. 722, 723. • * Summarize the features of plant tissues including epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. Table 34.4. • Explain the functional significance of plasmodesmata. P. 713. • Distinguish primary from secondary cell wall. P. 713. • * Distinguish between xylem and phloem (in particular, tracheids, vessel elements, and sieve elements). Pp. 716, 717. • Summarize the internal anatomy of a root and explain the functional significance of the major tissues. • Explain how trees transition from primary to secondary growth and grow wider by producing secondary xylem and secondary phloem (this is related to lateral meristems above). Pp. 722, 723. • Explain how seasonal variation in vascular cambium activity produces growth rings. CHAPTER 39 – ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION 1. To appreciate the importance of “trade-off’s” in animal physiology. 2. To appreciate the significance of homeostasis and how, in a general sense, it is achieved. • * Explain the surface area/volume relationship as a structure increases in size and the implications of this shift. Fig. 39.9. o As a structure increases in size, the surface area to volume ratio decreases. (The volume increases more than the surface does. (The metabolic rate of a larger animal will be higher, but the smaller the animal the higher the mass-specific metabolic rate it has.) (Elephant to mouse- the elephant has a higher metabolic rate, but smaller organisms don’t have to worry about all that tissue, so they have a higher metabolic rate on a per weight basis. • * Explain the concept of homeostasis and its significance, including the role of negative feedback (feedback inhibition). Fig. 39.13. o Homeostasis- maintaining relatively stable conditions. ▪ Sensors- can detect something (Ex. Neurons for temperature) send it to… below ▪ Integrator- Ex part of your brain, take the info from the sensors and compares it with some set point. ▪ Effector- For ex. It triggers these to either lower or increase body temp. (Ex of effectors- blood vessels, sweat glands, respiratory centers) o Thermoregulation- is a process that allows your body to maintain its core internal temperature. All thermoregulation mechanisms are designed to return your body to homeostasis. ▪ Endotherms- any animal that generates its own body heat ▪ Ectotherms- an organism that absorbs heat from its surrounding environment. ▪ Heterotherms- all those organisms whose body temp fluctuates ▪ Homeotherms- organisms whose body temperature are fairly constant. • * Distinguish among the different approaches to thermoregulation in animals. Pp. 831, 832. (ABOVE) • Explain the significance of counter-current exchange. Fig. 39.16. o This refers to any time we have a system, most likely the movement of fluids, in which things tend to be flowing in opposite directions. (Ex. Animal- heat moving through limbs.) CHAPTER 11 ~ CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS 1. Appreciate the complexity of cell connections. 2. Understand the basic mechanism of steroid and protein hormone activity. • *Explain the functional significance of: plasmodesmata, gap junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes. Pp. 238-242. o - structures that connect adjacent cells in plants. o heart tissues) formed when certain proteins are inserted into cell membranes and end up forming a continuous pathway between adjacent cells. (Serve as passage ways between adjacent cells) o Tight junctions- Cells form a very tight barrier between adjacent cells (Water tight-nothing gets through when cells have tight junctions) o Desmosomes- keeps cells attached to each other ▪ Cadherins- proteins that allow specific cells within different region of the body to recognize and adhere to each other. (Muscle cells, skin cells, Brian cells) • *Summarize the mechanism by which steroid hormones trigger changes in target cells. Fig. 11.123 o Steroids hormones- ex estrogen, testosterone ▪ They cause changes in target cells by (passing through the cell membrane) binding to a specific receptor, this causes the receptor to change shape and now this receptor complex can make its way through the nuclear membrane and directly interact with chromosomes or DNA found within the nucleus. (Can lead to gene expression change- either activity or deactivation of certain genes) • Summarize the mechanism by which epinephrine triggers the release of glucose from liver cells (as an example of signal transduction). o Signal transduction- (Hormones that can’t enter a cell) is the transmission of molecular signals from a cell's exterior to its interior. Signals received by cells must be transmitted effectively into the cell to ensure an appropriate response. This step is initiated by cell-surface receptors. o (Adrenaline release) Fight or Flight- release of epinephrine (usually is a dangerous situation). A lot of glucose is released to provide the body with energy. The image shows how glucose is released… • Explain why only certain types of cells/tissues/organs respond to specific hormones. o Only target cells have the appropriate receptors for hormones. (they affect only cetin tissues with certain receptors) o Hormone signals become amplified. (Because only certain receptors and cells are used) o Response of different tissues depends on types of receptors and second messengers present. • Explain the significance of “signal amplification”. P. 245. CHAPTER 40 ~ WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE LEARNING GOALS- 1. Understand the relevance of metabolic waste products. 2. Appreciate how blood is filtered during the formation of urine. LEARNING OBJECTIVES- After completing this chapter, you should be able to: • Summarize the types of solutes that are regulated in animals. P. 837. o Electrolytes- various ions o Nutrients- glucose, vitamins etc.… o pH- the concentration of protons in our blood o Waste products • Summarize the different types of nitrogenous waste products and their significance. P. 839, Table 40.1. o Nitrogenous wastes: ammonia- it can be released directly from an organism, urea- produce it and store in bladders, uric acid- ex bird dropping, the white component is uric acid. • * Describe the structural features of kidneys including the major blood vessels. Fig. 40.7. o Kidneys are the excretory organ, filters blood and regulates solutes. Important components (PICTURE). • * Identify the structural features of nephrons and describe the functional significance of each. Fig. 40.8. o Nephron structure and function ▪ Renal corpuscle ▪ Proximal tubule (PT) ▪ Loop of Henle • Descending and Ascending limb ▪ Distal tubule (DT) ▪ Collecting duct- collects all of the urine produced in thousands of nephrons in the kidneys and carries it out of the kidney to the bladder • Explain the steps involved in urine formation including 1) filtration, 2) reabsorption, 3) secretion, and 4) concentration. Pp. 846-849. o “Urine is typically more concentrated than blood” o Filtration: blood pressure forces the liquid blood out of the capillaries (nonselective- everything in the liquid portion is filtered out even vitamins etc. – driving force for this is blood pressure) (We lose about 180L per day but get it back in ways obviously.) o Reabsorption: water, glucose, vitamins, etc. are reabsorbed from filtrate into vasa recta. (Vasa recta- is an extensive system of blood vessels that interact with the nephrons.) Occurs mainly in the proximal tubule. o Secretion: Excess drugs, vitamins, H (+) ions are secreted from vasa recta into tubule. Occurs in distal tubule mostly. (slightly in proximal tubule) o Concentration: occurs primarily in the collecting duct. Urine may be 4 times more concentrated than initial blood filtered. • Explain the role of active transport and cotransporters during reabsorption. Fig. 40.10. o This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the energy derived from the concentration gradient of the ions/molecules across the membrane the cotransporter protein is integrated within • Explain the mechanism by which urine can be more concentrated than blood. Fig. 43.15. o How it happens… Concentration gradient of solutes ▪ Salt released from the loop of Henle ▪ Urea released from the collecting duct • Explain the impact of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) on urine production. Fig. 40.12. o ADH regulates the amount and concentration of urine. It causes the duct to be more permeable to water, this makes urine higher in concentration and lower in volume. • Osmoconformers are marine organisms that maintain an internal environment that is osmotic to their external environment. This means that the osmotic pressure, or osmolarity, of the organism's cells is equal to the osmotic pressure of their surrounding environment. EXAM 3 STUDY GUIDE • Explain primary and secondary growth in plants and the meristems responsible for each. • Explain the concept of “apical dominance”. • Explain the internal and external structure of roots. • Explain the mechanisms by which water is transported through xylem by transpiration and sugars are transported through phloem. • Describe the structure and development of tree trunks (including the role of the vascular cambium in producing secondary growth). • Explain how steroid hormones work. • Explain signal transduction using epinephrine as an example (including the roles of receptors, G proteins, and second messengers). • Explain how a single hormone can have multiple effects in your body and the concept of “signal amplification”. • Describe the ways in which cells can connect with other cells. • Explain the relationship between surface area and volume as structures increase in size. • Differentiate between osmoconformers and osmoregulators. • Describe and explain the structure of nephrons and the process of urine formation in kidneys including what happens during filtration, reabsorption, and concentration. • Explain the impact of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). CHAPTER 42 ~ GAS EXCHANGE AND CIRCULATION LEARNING GOALS- • 1. Appreciate how gas exchange occurs in gills and lungs. • 2. Appreciate the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport. • 3. Understand how the human heart functions. LEARNING OBJECTIVES- • Summarize and explain the significance of Fick’s law of diffusion. Fig. 42.3. o Outlines some conditions that should be met in order to maximize the rate at which gas exchange takes place. The larger the surface area the more gas exchange will take place. The thinner the reparatory service the easier it will be for gas exchange to take place; also, high-pressure gradient makes it easier. • Explain the mechanism of breathing in animals with lungs. Fig. 42.12. o Lungs are gas exchange organs o Alveoli- functional unit of lungs, they are permeated with lots of capillaries o Lungs don’t do a lot in the breathing process, but they respond by inflating and contracting. • * Differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries. o Arteries- those blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, thick muscular wall o Veins- those blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart, thin muscular wall, they have valves that prevent the backflow of blood. o Capillaries- important types of blood vessels. They aren’t much bigger than a red blood cell. • * Identify the major chambers, valves, and blood vessels in a human heart and trace the pathway of blood flow through the heart. Fig. 42.24. (Diagram) • * Differentiate between the pulmonary and systemic circuits. Fig. 42.24. o Pulmonary- blood pumped by the right ventricle makes its way from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. o Systemic- Blood pumped from the left ventricle is pumped to the rest of the body and eventually back to the heart. • Explain the relationships between total cross-sectional area and blood pressure and velocity as blood passes from arteries through capillaries and then to veins. Fig. 42.28. o Blood pressure changes- it drops dramatically when blood goes through capillaries, and the pressure is not regained. o Velocity(speed)- when blood travels through capillaries it moves slow • Explain how fluids exit and re-enter capillaries through capillary exchange (including the role of blood pressure an osmotic pressure). Fig. 42.22. o Blood moves through a capillary, blood pressure forces the fluid out of a capillary, and as long as the concentration of solutes in blood is higher than the concentration of solutes in the surrounding tissues the osmotic pressure will draw tissue into a capillary, these two forces work against each other. • Explain the concept of “myogenic” and interpret an electrocardiogram (ECG). Fig. 42.26. o It generates its own electrical impulse causes the muscle to contract. o Electrocardiograms pick up these impulses. o The SA node is like the hearts pace maker. o AV node delays that impulse long enough for the ventricles to fill with blood, pushing blood in and out, this is a single heartbeat. o P wave is the impulse causing the atria to contract o QRS (complex) wave causes the ventricles to contract o T wave represents the relaxation of the ventricles • Explain how hemoglobin transports oxygen by interpreting oxygen dissociation curves. Pp. 885, 886. o (it’s a protein) Hemoglobin can pick up or release oxygen. A single hemoglobin can hold 1-4 chains of amino acids or 1-4 molecules of oxygen. • Explain the “Bohr shift” and its significance. Fig. 42.17. o … • Explain how carbon dioxide is transported in human blood including the role of carbonic anhydrase. Fig. 42.19. o Fitzsimonds CHAPTER 43 ~ NERVOUS SYSTEMS LEARNING GOALS- 1. Understand how neurons maintain a resting potential. 2. Understand how an electrical impulse it propagated along a neuron. 3. Appreciate the complexities of neuronal synapses. LEARNING OBJECTIVES- After completing this chapter, you should be able to: • * Identify the major structural features of neurons. Fig. 43.2. o Dendrites- collect chemicals signals o Cell body-integrates incoming signals and generates outgoing electrical signal to axon o Axon-passes chemical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell. • * Explain how a neuron at rest is polarized and maintains a resting potential (including the role of the “Na/K pump” during this process). Fig. 43.3. o Polarized at rest- the inside of the cell tends to have a more negative relative to its outside environment. o Na and K pumps. pumping sodium ions out of the neuron and potassium ions into the neuron. o Neurons communicate by sending electrical signals (depolarization) which travel along the neuron (Action potential). o Voltage gated channels allow movement either Na or K across cell membranes (but only when they are depolarized). • * Explain how an action potential is generated and propagated along the length of an axon (including the role of Na and K voltage-gated channels during this process). Fig. 43.7. o • Interpret the changes in membrane potential that occur during an action potential. Fig. 43.4. o • Explain the significance of “threshold”. P. 903. o • Explain the mechanism by which neurons communicate with other neurons through synapses. Fig. 43.11 o • Differentiate between excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory post- synaptic potentials (IPSPs) and summarize their role in “summation”. Fig. 43.13. o Ch 44- Sensory Systems: 1. Understand how neurons function as receptors. 2. Appreciate the complexity of vision. 3. Understand how humans perceive sound. LEARNING OBJECTIVES- After completing this chapter, you should be able to: • * Distinguish between mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. P. 923. o Mechanoreceptors respond to distortion caused by pressure, photoreceptors respond to particular wavelengths of light, chemoreceptors detect specific molecules (taste and smell), and thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature. • * Identify the major structures of the human eye including their functional significance. Fig. 44.11. o Sclera-outermost layer of the eye that is a tough rind of white tissue, it helps lubricate the eye. o Cornea-A transparent sheet of connective tissue, protects the eye o Iris-pigmented, round structure, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupil and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. Eye color is defined by that of the iris. o Pupil-hole in the center of the iris, the iris and pupil control the amount of light that enters the eye. o Lens-light enters the eye through the cornea and passes through the pupil and the curved clear lens. It focuses the light rays that pass through it in order to create images positioned at different distances. o Retina-Contains a layer of photoreceptors and several layers of neurons. It receives light that the lens has focused, converts the light into neural signals, and sends those signals to the brain. o Fovea- a tiny pit located in the macula of the retina that provides the clearest vision of all o Optic disk- The optic disc or optic nerve head is the point of exit for ganglion cell axons leaving the eye. Because there are no rods or cones overlying the optic disc, it corresponds to a small blind spot in each eye. o Tapetum lucidum- provides night vision for animals • *Explain the functional significance of rods and cones. Fig. 44.12. o Rods- grayscale perception, rhodopsin, more sensitive to dim light but not color, concentrated around periphery of retina. (Work better in dim light) o Cones- Detect color; concentrated in fovea, the three types are red, green and blue (color vision-work better in light) • Explain how the three cone types allow humans to perceive many different colors. Fig. 44.15. o We have blue, green, and red cones, named for the colors that they are most sensitive to. o S, M, and L opsin… each opsin absorbs a different range of wavelengths. • Summarize the reason behind colorblindness. Pp. 932, 933. o Some people fail to distinguish red and green because their M or L cones, or both are defective. • Identify the major structures of the human ear including their functional significance. Figs. 44.4, 44.5. o Outer ear-collects incoming pressure waves and funnels them into a tube known as the ear canal. o Middle ear-these vibrations from the outer ear are passed to tiny bones in the middle ear, they vibrate against one another. These bones, stapes, vibrate against the oval window, which separates the middle and inner ear. o Inner ear- serves as the body's microphone, converting sound pressure impulses from the outer ear into electrical impulses which are passed on to the brain via the auditory nerve. • Explain how we can distinguish volume and frequencies of sounds. Figs. 44.2, 44.6. • Explain the role of chemoreceptors in taste and smell. Pp. 934, 935. o Sense of taste, gustation, and the sense of smell, olfaction, originate in chemoreceptors o They detect molecules Ch 47- Reproduction 1. Understand the significance of sexual and asexual reproduction. 2. Understand how gametes are formed, and fertilization occurs, in humans. 3. Understand how hormones interact to regulate gamete formation and pregnancy in humans. LEARNING OBJECTIVES- • * Distinguish between fission, budding, and parthenogenesis as forms of asexual reproduction. P. 982. • * Summarize the major features of sperm production in humans. P. 984. o Sperm are male gametes that form in the testes and mature in the epididymis. Sperm production begins at puberty. o The head of the sperm contains the nucleus, the midpiece is packed with mitochondria, and the tail moves like a propeller. o 300 million per ejaculation o Sperm only live for 5 days • Summarize the hormonal control of spermatogenesis in humans. (diagram) • * Identify the structural features of the female reproductive system and their functional significance. Fig. 47.9.   o The ovaries are the organs where egg cells develop o Fertilization takes place in the oviduct o It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. • Identify differences in sperm and egg production in males and females respectively. o Males-puberty, sperm survive for 5 days, females-whole life, eggs survive for 24 hours • Explain the functional significance of the follicle. o Follicle- An egg cell and the surrounding tissue, they grow and develop each month and are released about once a month. • Explain when intercourse must occur relative to ovulation in order for conception to occur. o Intercourse must occur either 5 days before ovulation or one day after. • Explain the events of the follicular and luteal phases of the female reproductive cycle including relationships between: follicles, corpus luteum, estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and the endometrium. Fig. 47.26. o Follicular phases-first 14 days when which a follicle is growing within an ovary, ovulation occurs around day 14. o Luteal phases-The follicle develops into a yellow and the corpus luteum is present in the follicle. (Last 14 days) o LH- triggers ovulation o Estradiol stimulates endometrial growth and surge in LH and FSH. o After ovulation, the follicle becomes corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and estradiol. Estradiol and progesterone inhibit pituitary (LH and FSH levels decrease.) o Estradiol and progesterone stimulate endometrium growth o Corpus luteum degenerates if fertilization doesn’t occur. Decreased progesterone= endometrium degenerates (Period) • Explain the functional significance of human chorionic gonadotropic (HCG). P. 1003. o It maintains the corpus luteum, to nourish the embryo. It protects the fetus during the first trimester. • Summarize the mechanisms by which various hormonal-based mechanisms of birth control work. P. 1002. o They block the receptors for progesterone in the uterus. Suppresses formation of hormones through negative feedback.