10 NUR 3129 Path Exam 1 study guide
Chapter 2
Osmosis
Diffusion – movement of particles
Facilitated diffusion pg 24
Neurons impulse transmission /afferent (also called sensory neurons to take info to
CNS)/efferent (Carries info away from the CNS) nerves pg 37
Determination of cell membrane potential ions/intracellular ions(K) vs extracellular ions pg
24
Know normal numbers.
When K goes up (in ECF), interventions will be taken to put it back in the cell
K in charge of membrane potential
Membrane potential is due to the different charges on the two sides of the cell due
to the difference concentration of ions
Functions of cell membranes pg 16
barrier; semi-permeable structure. allows ions to cross membrane
provides receptors for hormones and enzymes
Aids in the regulation of cell growth and proliferation
Participates in the electrical events that occur in nerve and muscle cells
Chapter 3
Atrophy all types pg 41-42
Disuse: reduction in skeletal muscle use
Denervation: form of disuse atrophy, occurs in muscle of paralyzed limbs
Loss of endocrine stimulation: form of disuse atrophy; i.e loss of estrogen during
menopause
Hypoxia/ischemia pg 50-51
Ischemia: impaired oxygen delivery and impaired removal of metabolic end
products such as lactic acid
o Reduced blood flow
o Local tissue injury
Hypoxia: reduced oxygen in the cells
o Inability of the cells to use oxygen
Vasoconstriction causes limited blood flow so the two
,Calcium relation to cell death pg 51
When cells are injured or dying, they accumulate Ca.
Ischemia and certain toxins lead to an increase in cytosolic calcium because of
increased influx across the cell membrane and the release of calcium from
intracellular stores. The increased calcium level may inappropriately activate a
number of enzymes with potentially damaging effects. These enzymes include the
phospholipases, responsible for damaging the cell membrane; proteases that
damage the cytoskeleton and membrane proteins; ATPases that break down ATP
and hasten its depletion; and endonucleases that fragment chromatin.
Pathologic Calcification: Abnormal tissue deposition of calcium salts, together
with smaller amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals (can result in
kidney stones)
o Metastatic calcification: occurs in normal tissue
o Dystrophic calcification: in dying or dead tissue
Apoptosis-effects of, pg 51-53
Red blood cell last 120 days
Programed cell death
Necrosis: programed cell death in an organ or tissue that is still a part of a living
organism
Chapter 4
DNA structure/combinations/purine bases pyrimidine bases
Nucleotides consist of phosphoric acid, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and
one of hour nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine
Purine: adenine and guanine
A-T
G-C
The backbone of DNA consists of alternating groups of sugars and phosphates
rRNA,tRNA,mRNA and their roles pg 60
rRNA: where protein synthesis takes place (Edit)
, tRNA: transport and activates form of amino acids to protein molecules in the
ribosomes (Paste)
mRNA: transcribes the message; template for protein synthesis (Copy)
transcription, translation pg 60
Transcription: occurs in the cell nucleus, the process in which RNA is synthesized
from the DNA template.
o Genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase, which generates a single-
stranded RNA identical in sequence (Except T changes to U) to one of the
strands of DNA.
Translation: protein synthesis
Chaperoning mechanisms pg 70
When new DNA is made carry new DNA, fold it up to 3 pieces, and put it at its
new workstation. Assist newly formed protein.
Sometimes there’s an interruption and would cause the protein (DNA) to go rouge
(denature) and form inclusion body
Phenotypes/genotypes/recessive and dominant allelles pg 69
Recombinant technology…use of.. pg 71-72
Combination of DNA molecules that are not found together in nature. Makes it
possible to identify the DNA sequence in a gene and produce the protein product
encoded by the gene.
Gene isolation
Cloning: requires cutting the DNA molecule apart, modifying it, and
reassembling its fragments. Producing copies of the modified DNA, its mRNA,
and it gene product
Pharmaceutical applications: i.e human insulin and human growth hormones
Gene therapy
DNA fingerprinting
Mutations pg 60
Substitution of one base pair for another, the loss or addition of one or more base
pairs, or rearrangements of base pairs
Occur spontaneously, whereas, others occur because of environmental agents,
chemicals, and radiation
May arise in somatic cells or in germ cells
Germ cell mutations can be inherited.
Chapter 2
Osmosis
Diffusion – movement of particles
Facilitated diffusion pg 24
Neurons impulse transmission /afferent (also called sensory neurons to take info to
CNS)/efferent (Carries info away from the CNS) nerves pg 37
Determination of cell membrane potential ions/intracellular ions(K) vs extracellular ions pg
24
Know normal numbers.
When K goes up (in ECF), interventions will be taken to put it back in the cell
K in charge of membrane potential
Membrane potential is due to the different charges on the two sides of the cell due
to the difference concentration of ions
Functions of cell membranes pg 16
barrier; semi-permeable structure. allows ions to cross membrane
provides receptors for hormones and enzymes
Aids in the regulation of cell growth and proliferation
Participates in the electrical events that occur in nerve and muscle cells
Chapter 3
Atrophy all types pg 41-42
Disuse: reduction in skeletal muscle use
Denervation: form of disuse atrophy, occurs in muscle of paralyzed limbs
Loss of endocrine stimulation: form of disuse atrophy; i.e loss of estrogen during
menopause
Hypoxia/ischemia pg 50-51
Ischemia: impaired oxygen delivery and impaired removal of metabolic end
products such as lactic acid
o Reduced blood flow
o Local tissue injury
Hypoxia: reduced oxygen in the cells
o Inability of the cells to use oxygen
Vasoconstriction causes limited blood flow so the two
,Calcium relation to cell death pg 51
When cells are injured or dying, they accumulate Ca.
Ischemia and certain toxins lead to an increase in cytosolic calcium because of
increased influx across the cell membrane and the release of calcium from
intracellular stores. The increased calcium level may inappropriately activate a
number of enzymes with potentially damaging effects. These enzymes include the
phospholipases, responsible for damaging the cell membrane; proteases that
damage the cytoskeleton and membrane proteins; ATPases that break down ATP
and hasten its depletion; and endonucleases that fragment chromatin.
Pathologic Calcification: Abnormal tissue deposition of calcium salts, together
with smaller amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals (can result in
kidney stones)
o Metastatic calcification: occurs in normal tissue
o Dystrophic calcification: in dying or dead tissue
Apoptosis-effects of, pg 51-53
Red blood cell last 120 days
Programed cell death
Necrosis: programed cell death in an organ or tissue that is still a part of a living
organism
Chapter 4
DNA structure/combinations/purine bases pyrimidine bases
Nucleotides consist of phosphoric acid, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and
one of hour nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine
Purine: adenine and guanine
A-T
G-C
The backbone of DNA consists of alternating groups of sugars and phosphates
rRNA,tRNA,mRNA and their roles pg 60
rRNA: where protein synthesis takes place (Edit)
, tRNA: transport and activates form of amino acids to protein molecules in the
ribosomes (Paste)
mRNA: transcribes the message; template for protein synthesis (Copy)
transcription, translation pg 60
Transcription: occurs in the cell nucleus, the process in which RNA is synthesized
from the DNA template.
o Genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase, which generates a single-
stranded RNA identical in sequence (Except T changes to U) to one of the
strands of DNA.
Translation: protein synthesis
Chaperoning mechanisms pg 70
When new DNA is made carry new DNA, fold it up to 3 pieces, and put it at its
new workstation. Assist newly formed protein.
Sometimes there’s an interruption and would cause the protein (DNA) to go rouge
(denature) and form inclusion body
Phenotypes/genotypes/recessive and dominant allelles pg 69
Recombinant technology…use of.. pg 71-72
Combination of DNA molecules that are not found together in nature. Makes it
possible to identify the DNA sequence in a gene and produce the protein product
encoded by the gene.
Gene isolation
Cloning: requires cutting the DNA molecule apart, modifying it, and
reassembling its fragments. Producing copies of the modified DNA, its mRNA,
and it gene product
Pharmaceutical applications: i.e human insulin and human growth hormones
Gene therapy
DNA fingerprinting
Mutations pg 60
Substitution of one base pair for another, the loss or addition of one or more base
pairs, or rearrangements of base pairs
Occur spontaneously, whereas, others occur because of environmental agents,
chemicals, and radiation
May arise in somatic cells or in germ cells
Germ cell mutations can be inherited.
