Politics of Differences - readings
1. Young
Overview:
In this article, Iris Marion Young challenges the idea of deliberative democracy, which holds
that democratic decision-making should be based on rational debate and discussion among
equal participants. Young argues that this conception of democracy is insufficient because it
fails to account for the role of communication in shaping social norms and identities. She
proposes an alternative model of democracy that emphasizes the importance of recognizing
and addressing the perspectives of marginalized groups and individuals.
Main Arguments:
Young begins by critiquing the assumptions underlying deliberative democracy. She argues
that this model assumes that all individuals have equal access to public discourse, which is
not the case in societies that are marked by structural inequalities. Furthermore, Young
notes that deliberative democracy assumes that rational argumentation is the most effective
means of persuasion, which ignores the importance of emotions, power dynamics, and
historical context in shaping public opinion.
To address these shortcomings, Young proposes an alternative model of democracy that
emphasizes the role of communication in shaping social norms and identities. She notes that
communication is not simply a means of exchanging information, but also a means of
creating and reinforcing social norms and identities. Young argues that these norms and
identities are often shaped by implicit biases and stereotypes, which can marginalize and
exclude certain groups of people.
To address these issues, Young proposes a model of democracy that emphasizes the
importance of recognizing and addressing the perspectives of marginalized groups and
individuals. She argues that this requires creating spaces for communication that are
structured in ways that are inclusive and respectful of diverse perspectives. Young notes that
this approach may require rethinking the ways in which public discourse is structured, such
as by creating alternative forms of media that allow for more diverse voices to be heard.
Young also emphasizes the importance of recognizing and addressing the structural
inequalities that underlie social norms and identities. She argues that this requires not only
creating spaces for communication that are more inclusive, but also actively working to
dismantle the systems of oppression that create and reinforce these norms and identities.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Iris Marion Young's article "Communication and the Other: Beyond
Deliberative Democracy" challenges the assumptions underlying deliberative democracy and
proposes an alternative model of democracy that emphasizes the importance of
communication in shaping social norms and identities. Young argues that this approach
requires creating spaces for communication that are inclusive and respectful of diverse
perspectives, and actively working to address the structural inequalities that underlie social
norms and identities.
,1. Bennett and Livingston
Overview:
In this article, Bennett and Livingston provide a brief history of the "disinformation age,"
which they define as the period of time since the 1990s when new technologies and
communication platforms have facilitated the spread of false and misleading information.
They argue that this phenomenon has contributed to the decline of institutional authority and
weakened the foundations of democracy.
Main Arguments:
Bennett and Livingston begin by tracing the roots of the disinformation age to the emergence
of the internet and the democratization of media production and distribution that it facilitated.
They note that this period was characterized by a proliferation of new communication
platforms, including blogs, social media, and user-generated content sites, which made it
easier for individuals and groups to spread information quickly and widely.
However, Bennett and Livingston argue that this democratization of communication also had
negative consequences, as it created new opportunities for the spread of disinformation and
propaganda. They note that these tactics have been employed by a wide range of actors,
including political parties, interest groups, and foreign governments, and that they have been
used to shape public opinion, influence elections, and undermine trust in democratic
institutions.
Bennett and Livingston also discuss the role of new technologies, such as bots and
algorithms, in amplifying the spread of disinformation. They note that these technologies
have been used to create artificial "echo chambers" that reinforce individuals' pre-existing
beliefs and biases, and to manipulate social media algorithms to increase the visibility of
false or misleading content.
Finally, Bennett and Livingston argue that the spread of disinformation has contributed to the
decline of institutional authority and the erosion of democratic norms. They note that
institutions such as the media, government, and scientific community have traditionally
played an important role in shaping public opinion and providing a shared basis of factual
knowledge. However, the spread of disinformation has undermined the authority of these
institutions and made it more difficult for individuals to distinguish between fact and fiction.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Bennett and Livingston argue that the disinformation age has had significant
negative consequences for democratic institutions and norms. They note that the spread of
disinformation has been facilitated by new technologies and communication platforms, and
has been employed by a wide range of actors to shape public opinion and undermine trust in
democratic institutions. They suggest that addressing these challenges will require a
concerted effort by government, civil society, and private actors to promote transparency,
accountability, and factual accuracy in public discourse.
2. Mahmood
Overview:
This article examines how Islamic movements in Egypt have responded to feminist
challenges to traditional gender roles and relations. Specifically, the author explores how
, Islamic revivalist movements, which seek to establish an Islamic state based on sharia law,
have redefined women's roles in society through discourses of piety and modesty, and how
this has affected women's self-understanding and agency. The article argues that feminist
theorists should be attentive to how women's agency and subjectivity are constituted within
particular cultural contexts and should avoid imposing universalizing assumptions about
women's experiences.
Main Arguments:
The author begins by providing a brief history of feminism in Egypt, noting that the
movement has been dominated by upper-class women who have often been disconnected
from the experiences of working-class women. She argues that this has led to a focus on
legal and political rights at the expense of addressing the everyday realities of women's
lives. Mahmood then turns to the Islamic revivalist movement, which emerged in the 1970s
as a response to the failures of secular nationalism and socialism. The author notes that
Islamic revivalism has been characterized by a focus on the piety of individuals and the need
to reform society based on Islamic principles.
The author argues that Islamic revivalist movements have sought to redefine women's roles
in society through discourses of piety and modesty. Women are encouraged to wear the
hijab, or headscarf, as a sign of their religious devotion and their rejection of Western
culture. The hijab is seen as a way to protect women from unwanted attention and to
maintain their dignity. The author notes that the hijab has become a contested site of
struggle between feminists and Islamic revivalists, with feminists viewing it as a symbol of
women's oppression and Islamic revivalists viewing it as a symbol of women's liberation.
Mahmood argues that feminist theorists have often assumed that women's agency and
subjectivity are always constituted through resistance to dominant power structures.
However, the author suggests that women's agency can also be constituted through their
identification with dominant cultural norms and values. Islamic revivalist women do not
necessarily see themselves as oppressed or in need of liberation. Rather, they see
themselves as empowered by their adherence to Islamic values and their rejection of
Western culture.
The author argues that feminist theorists should be attentive to how women's agency and
subjectivity are constituted within particular cultural contexts. Feminist theorists should avoid
imposing universalizing assumptions about women's experiences and should instead seek to
understand the complex ways in which women navigate different cultural norms and values.
Mahmood suggests that feminist theorists should adopt a more nuanced approach to
understanding the relationship between culture and agency.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Saba Mahmood's article "Feminist Theory, Embodiment, and the Docile
Agent: Some Reflections on the Egyptian Islamic Revival" provides a critical analysis of how
Islamic revivalist movements in Egypt have responded to feminist challenges to traditional
gender roles and relations. The author argues that feminist theorists should be attentive to
how women's agency and subjectivity are constituted within particular cultural contexts and
should avoid imposing universalizing assumptions about women's experiences. Overall, this
article provides a valuable contribution to feminist theory and the study of Islamic revivalism
in the Middle East.
1. Young
Overview:
In this article, Iris Marion Young challenges the idea of deliberative democracy, which holds
that democratic decision-making should be based on rational debate and discussion among
equal participants. Young argues that this conception of democracy is insufficient because it
fails to account for the role of communication in shaping social norms and identities. She
proposes an alternative model of democracy that emphasizes the importance of recognizing
and addressing the perspectives of marginalized groups and individuals.
Main Arguments:
Young begins by critiquing the assumptions underlying deliberative democracy. She argues
that this model assumes that all individuals have equal access to public discourse, which is
not the case in societies that are marked by structural inequalities. Furthermore, Young
notes that deliberative democracy assumes that rational argumentation is the most effective
means of persuasion, which ignores the importance of emotions, power dynamics, and
historical context in shaping public opinion.
To address these shortcomings, Young proposes an alternative model of democracy that
emphasizes the role of communication in shaping social norms and identities. She notes that
communication is not simply a means of exchanging information, but also a means of
creating and reinforcing social norms and identities. Young argues that these norms and
identities are often shaped by implicit biases and stereotypes, which can marginalize and
exclude certain groups of people.
To address these issues, Young proposes a model of democracy that emphasizes the
importance of recognizing and addressing the perspectives of marginalized groups and
individuals. She argues that this requires creating spaces for communication that are
structured in ways that are inclusive and respectful of diverse perspectives. Young notes that
this approach may require rethinking the ways in which public discourse is structured, such
as by creating alternative forms of media that allow for more diverse voices to be heard.
Young also emphasizes the importance of recognizing and addressing the structural
inequalities that underlie social norms and identities. She argues that this requires not only
creating spaces for communication that are more inclusive, but also actively working to
dismantle the systems of oppression that create and reinforce these norms and identities.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Iris Marion Young's article "Communication and the Other: Beyond
Deliberative Democracy" challenges the assumptions underlying deliberative democracy and
proposes an alternative model of democracy that emphasizes the importance of
communication in shaping social norms and identities. Young argues that this approach
requires creating spaces for communication that are inclusive and respectful of diverse
perspectives, and actively working to address the structural inequalities that underlie social
norms and identities.
,1. Bennett and Livingston
Overview:
In this article, Bennett and Livingston provide a brief history of the "disinformation age,"
which they define as the period of time since the 1990s when new technologies and
communication platforms have facilitated the spread of false and misleading information.
They argue that this phenomenon has contributed to the decline of institutional authority and
weakened the foundations of democracy.
Main Arguments:
Bennett and Livingston begin by tracing the roots of the disinformation age to the emergence
of the internet and the democratization of media production and distribution that it facilitated.
They note that this period was characterized by a proliferation of new communication
platforms, including blogs, social media, and user-generated content sites, which made it
easier for individuals and groups to spread information quickly and widely.
However, Bennett and Livingston argue that this democratization of communication also had
negative consequences, as it created new opportunities for the spread of disinformation and
propaganda. They note that these tactics have been employed by a wide range of actors,
including political parties, interest groups, and foreign governments, and that they have been
used to shape public opinion, influence elections, and undermine trust in democratic
institutions.
Bennett and Livingston also discuss the role of new technologies, such as bots and
algorithms, in amplifying the spread of disinformation. They note that these technologies
have been used to create artificial "echo chambers" that reinforce individuals' pre-existing
beliefs and biases, and to manipulate social media algorithms to increase the visibility of
false or misleading content.
Finally, Bennett and Livingston argue that the spread of disinformation has contributed to the
decline of institutional authority and the erosion of democratic norms. They note that
institutions such as the media, government, and scientific community have traditionally
played an important role in shaping public opinion and providing a shared basis of factual
knowledge. However, the spread of disinformation has undermined the authority of these
institutions and made it more difficult for individuals to distinguish between fact and fiction.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Bennett and Livingston argue that the disinformation age has had significant
negative consequences for democratic institutions and norms. They note that the spread of
disinformation has been facilitated by new technologies and communication platforms, and
has been employed by a wide range of actors to shape public opinion and undermine trust in
democratic institutions. They suggest that addressing these challenges will require a
concerted effort by government, civil society, and private actors to promote transparency,
accountability, and factual accuracy in public discourse.
2. Mahmood
Overview:
This article examines how Islamic movements in Egypt have responded to feminist
challenges to traditional gender roles and relations. Specifically, the author explores how
, Islamic revivalist movements, which seek to establish an Islamic state based on sharia law,
have redefined women's roles in society through discourses of piety and modesty, and how
this has affected women's self-understanding and agency. The article argues that feminist
theorists should be attentive to how women's agency and subjectivity are constituted within
particular cultural contexts and should avoid imposing universalizing assumptions about
women's experiences.
Main Arguments:
The author begins by providing a brief history of feminism in Egypt, noting that the
movement has been dominated by upper-class women who have often been disconnected
from the experiences of working-class women. She argues that this has led to a focus on
legal and political rights at the expense of addressing the everyday realities of women's
lives. Mahmood then turns to the Islamic revivalist movement, which emerged in the 1970s
as a response to the failures of secular nationalism and socialism. The author notes that
Islamic revivalism has been characterized by a focus on the piety of individuals and the need
to reform society based on Islamic principles.
The author argues that Islamic revivalist movements have sought to redefine women's roles
in society through discourses of piety and modesty. Women are encouraged to wear the
hijab, or headscarf, as a sign of their religious devotion and their rejection of Western
culture. The hijab is seen as a way to protect women from unwanted attention and to
maintain their dignity. The author notes that the hijab has become a contested site of
struggle between feminists and Islamic revivalists, with feminists viewing it as a symbol of
women's oppression and Islamic revivalists viewing it as a symbol of women's liberation.
Mahmood argues that feminist theorists have often assumed that women's agency and
subjectivity are always constituted through resistance to dominant power structures.
However, the author suggests that women's agency can also be constituted through their
identification with dominant cultural norms and values. Islamic revivalist women do not
necessarily see themselves as oppressed or in need of liberation. Rather, they see
themselves as empowered by their adherence to Islamic values and their rejection of
Western culture.
The author argues that feminist theorists should be attentive to how women's agency and
subjectivity are constituted within particular cultural contexts. Feminist theorists should avoid
imposing universalizing assumptions about women's experiences and should instead seek to
understand the complex ways in which women navigate different cultural norms and values.
Mahmood suggests that feminist theorists should adopt a more nuanced approach to
understanding the relationship between culture and agency.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Saba Mahmood's article "Feminist Theory, Embodiment, and the Docile
Agent: Some Reflections on the Egyptian Islamic Revival" provides a critical analysis of how
Islamic revivalist movements in Egypt have responded to feminist challenges to traditional
gender roles and relations. The author argues that feminist theorists should be attentive to
how women's agency and subjectivity are constituted within particular cultural contexts and
should avoid imposing universalizing assumptions about women's experiences. Overall, this
article provides a valuable contribution to feminist theory and the study of Islamic revivalism
in the Middle East.
