RUG selection Psychology 23/24
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODS....................................................................................................2
HOW IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH? (2.1-2.4)...............................................2
WHAT TYPES OF STUDIES ARE USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH? (2.5-2.8)..................................................4
WHAT ARE THE ETHICS GOVERNING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH? (2.9-2.11)....................................................5
HOW ARE DATA ANALYSED AND EVALUATED? (2.12-2.15)..........................................................................6
CHAPTER 4: CONSCIOUSNESS...........................................................................................................7
WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESS? (4.1-4.5)......................................................................................................7
WHAT IS ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS? (4.6-4.9)..........................................................................................8
WHAT IS SLEEP? (4.10-4.14)................................................................................................................9
HOW DO BRAIN INJURY AND DRUGS AFFECT CONSCIOUSNESS? (4.15-4.18)...................................................12
CHAPTER 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY.................................................................................................15
HOW DOES GROUP MEMBERSHIP AFFECT PEOPLE? (12.1-12.5)...................................................................15
WHEN DO PEOPLE HARM OR HELP OTHERS? (12.6-12.9)...........................................................................16
HOW DO ATTITUDES GUIDE BEHAVIOR? (12.9-12.11)..............................................................................17
HOW DO PEOPLE THINK ABOUT OTHERS? (12.12-12.14)..........................................................................18
WHAT DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF RELATIONSHIPS? (12.15-12.17)..........................................................19
,Chapter 2: Research methods
Empiricism: gaining knowledge by observing the world and measuring aspects of it.
How is the scientific method used in psychological research? (2.1-
2.4)
2.1 Science has three primary goals.
Primary goals of science: description, prediction, and explanation.
- Prevalence: the proportion of a population who have a specific characterization during a
specific period.
Scientific method: systematic procedure to obtain
information about a scientific subject.
- Research: a scientific process that involves
the careful collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
- Data: measurements gathered during the
research process.
- Theory: a model of interconnected ideas or
concepts that explains what is observed and
makes predictions about future events.
Based on empirical evidence.
- Hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses.
There are seven steps that define the scientific method:
1. Pose a specific, testable research question 5. Conduct the study
2. Literature review (what is already known?) 6. Analyze the data
3. Form a hypothesis 7. Report the results
4. Design a study
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical.
No single study can provide a definite answer or explanation about any phenomenon.
Replication: repeating a study to confirm or contradict the results.
- Reproducibility project: an initiative from a large group of psychologists that sought to
replicate findings that had been published during 2008 in three selected journals. 39% of
these studies replicated.
False positive: a result that occurs when there is no real effect, but a study produces a statistically
significant result by chance.
Questionable research practices: practices that unintentionally make the research less replicable,
such as small samples, HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known), p-hacking (using different
formulas or sets of data to get the right results) and underreporting null effects (not reporting the
lack of relationships).
Preregistration: documenting a study’s hypothesis, methods, and analysis plan before the study
starts and publishing it on a time-stamped website.
Meta-analysis: a “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a
conclusion.
2
, 3
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODS....................................................................................................2
HOW IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH? (2.1-2.4)...............................................2
WHAT TYPES OF STUDIES ARE USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH? (2.5-2.8)..................................................4
WHAT ARE THE ETHICS GOVERNING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH? (2.9-2.11)....................................................5
HOW ARE DATA ANALYSED AND EVALUATED? (2.12-2.15)..........................................................................6
CHAPTER 4: CONSCIOUSNESS...........................................................................................................7
WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESS? (4.1-4.5)......................................................................................................7
WHAT IS ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS? (4.6-4.9)..........................................................................................8
WHAT IS SLEEP? (4.10-4.14)................................................................................................................9
HOW DO BRAIN INJURY AND DRUGS AFFECT CONSCIOUSNESS? (4.15-4.18)...................................................12
CHAPTER 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY.................................................................................................15
HOW DOES GROUP MEMBERSHIP AFFECT PEOPLE? (12.1-12.5)...................................................................15
WHEN DO PEOPLE HARM OR HELP OTHERS? (12.6-12.9)...........................................................................16
HOW DO ATTITUDES GUIDE BEHAVIOR? (12.9-12.11)..............................................................................17
HOW DO PEOPLE THINK ABOUT OTHERS? (12.12-12.14)..........................................................................18
WHAT DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF RELATIONSHIPS? (12.15-12.17)..........................................................19
,Chapter 2: Research methods
Empiricism: gaining knowledge by observing the world and measuring aspects of it.
How is the scientific method used in psychological research? (2.1-
2.4)
2.1 Science has three primary goals.
Primary goals of science: description, prediction, and explanation.
- Prevalence: the proportion of a population who have a specific characterization during a
specific period.
Scientific method: systematic procedure to obtain
information about a scientific subject.
- Research: a scientific process that involves
the careful collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
- Data: measurements gathered during the
research process.
- Theory: a model of interconnected ideas or
concepts that explains what is observed and
makes predictions about future events.
Based on empirical evidence.
- Hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses.
There are seven steps that define the scientific method:
1. Pose a specific, testable research question 5. Conduct the study
2. Literature review (what is already known?) 6. Analyze the data
3. Form a hypothesis 7. Report the results
4. Design a study
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical.
No single study can provide a definite answer or explanation about any phenomenon.
Replication: repeating a study to confirm or contradict the results.
- Reproducibility project: an initiative from a large group of psychologists that sought to
replicate findings that had been published during 2008 in three selected journals. 39% of
these studies replicated.
False positive: a result that occurs when there is no real effect, but a study produces a statistically
significant result by chance.
Questionable research practices: practices that unintentionally make the research less replicable,
such as small samples, HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known), p-hacking (using different
formulas or sets of data to get the right results) and underreporting null effects (not reporting the
lack of relationships).
Preregistration: documenting a study’s hypothesis, methods, and analysis plan before the study
starts and publishing it on a time-stamped website.
Meta-analysis: a “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a
conclusion.
2
, 3
