CHAPTER 1
1. Epistemological foundations of social sciences
1.1 Multidimensionality - multiple dimensions of human existence
• Objective – there are identifiable objects (tangible and observable)
• Critical-dialectical position of Marx – the objective dimension of the modes of production
and social reproduction is the basic one, from which the others are derived
• Subjective – objects are perceived by individuals and translated into concrete actions
• Behaviouralist position – subjective perceptions is the starting point from where human
beings conduct actions (subpective perceptions shape social and political life) – electoral
studies and cultural research
• Normative – concerns with ethical judgments of good and bad actions
• Philosophical position focusing in the search of a potential universal ontology (absolute
truth)
1.2 Malleability of the substance matter
- Karl Popper coined this metaphor of cloud and clocks with regard to the degree of
determination of scientific theories
, - “harder” & “softer” approaches in the discipline
1.3 “Self-referential” aspects
● As humans and social beings we are inevitably part of the subject matter we are
studying
- Even with all the ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’ attempts to detach ourselves from
the object of study, a subjective influence persists
● Limitation from the naturalist perspective, but it is also an advantage
- We can interact with our object of study, understand and interpret the
meanings of their thoughts and actions
- With a theoretical framework and the scientific method we can transform and
interpret information coming from our object of study (humans)
2. Linking levels of analysis
We can conduct research on multiple levels:
1. A macro-level- refers to large social entities (nation-states, economies, international
organizations)
2. A micro-level- refers to individuals living and acting in these macro-level entities
3. A meso-level- refers to organized groups of persons in associations (social movements,
political parties, trade unions)
,2.1 The general mode of social explanation
Social event start at the macro-level, shaping perceptions and actions in the micro-level
If individual actions are aggregated by organizations at the meso-level there will be higher
chances of them being effective to affect the macro-level
Individual agenda – social agenda –political agenda
3. Approaches to causality in social sciences
3.1 David Hume’s regularity model of causation
• We need three conditions to speak of a strict and testable causality:
1. Contiguity ( cause (iV) and effect (dV) must be contiguous –neighbouring in space
and time)
2. Succession (cause must be prior to the effect)
3. Constant conjunction (there must be a constant union between
cause and effect)
Critic – this is based on naturalistic relationships and not on social relationships. Therefore,
they presuppose an absolute law/theory
- Several combinations of factors can lead to a specific outcome
- We employ Qualitative Comparative Analysis (small-medium N)
- Necessary conditions – always present for a certain outcome
- Sufficient conditions – explain the outcome by themselves
3.2 Statistical models
• In a probabilistic world, causal relationships cannot be
ascertained with certainty.
• We use statistical models with a large N (number of cases in a sample) to test the
explanatory power of variable A over variable B
• Ordinary linear regression analysis – workhorse of quantitative analysis in social sciences
, 3.3 Large-N and small-N comparative analysis
Large-N and small-N comparative analysis can determine the explanatory factors of a
specific outcome, but the causal mechanisms remain in a black-box
Process tracing – allow researchers to identify a precise sequence of events and develop a
theoretical explanation for causal mechanisms
In Rajoy’s government the welfare state was re-centralised
- What are the causal mechanisms in this change of the
(des)centralization of welfare in Spain?
- Process tracing – interviews and focus groups with policymakers inthe
Spanish ‘Consejerías’
CHAPTER 2
1. Basic distinctions in research designs and methods
Idiographic (case study analysis in detail) vs nomothetic (establish general patters with
theory-building potential) methods
Qualitative (not possible to develop broad generalisations, therefore we need to ground
theories on fieldwork and qualitative data) vs quantitative (attempt to approximate the
universality of natural sciences with complex statistical and experimental designs) divide.
Deductive (deducts from given assumptions or theories) vs inductive (build-theory from the
bottom-up) forms of reasoning and theory building
Experimental (tries to emulate a laboratory-like research situation; control and treatment) vs
observational (researcher does not interfere in the process; gathers information / data)
studies to determine forms of causality
2. Research design
- Before beginning writing a research paper, we need to plan how are you going to design the
study.
- The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible
1. Epistemological foundations of social sciences
1.1 Multidimensionality - multiple dimensions of human existence
• Objective – there are identifiable objects (tangible and observable)
• Critical-dialectical position of Marx – the objective dimension of the modes of production
and social reproduction is the basic one, from which the others are derived
• Subjective – objects are perceived by individuals and translated into concrete actions
• Behaviouralist position – subjective perceptions is the starting point from where human
beings conduct actions (subpective perceptions shape social and political life) – electoral
studies and cultural research
• Normative – concerns with ethical judgments of good and bad actions
• Philosophical position focusing in the search of a potential universal ontology (absolute
truth)
1.2 Malleability of the substance matter
- Karl Popper coined this metaphor of cloud and clocks with regard to the degree of
determination of scientific theories
, - “harder” & “softer” approaches in the discipline
1.3 “Self-referential” aspects
● As humans and social beings we are inevitably part of the subject matter we are
studying
- Even with all the ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’ attempts to detach ourselves from
the object of study, a subjective influence persists
● Limitation from the naturalist perspective, but it is also an advantage
- We can interact with our object of study, understand and interpret the
meanings of their thoughts and actions
- With a theoretical framework and the scientific method we can transform and
interpret information coming from our object of study (humans)
2. Linking levels of analysis
We can conduct research on multiple levels:
1. A macro-level- refers to large social entities (nation-states, economies, international
organizations)
2. A micro-level- refers to individuals living and acting in these macro-level entities
3. A meso-level- refers to organized groups of persons in associations (social movements,
political parties, trade unions)
,2.1 The general mode of social explanation
Social event start at the macro-level, shaping perceptions and actions in the micro-level
If individual actions are aggregated by organizations at the meso-level there will be higher
chances of them being effective to affect the macro-level
Individual agenda – social agenda –political agenda
3. Approaches to causality in social sciences
3.1 David Hume’s regularity model of causation
• We need three conditions to speak of a strict and testable causality:
1. Contiguity ( cause (iV) and effect (dV) must be contiguous –neighbouring in space
and time)
2. Succession (cause must be prior to the effect)
3. Constant conjunction (there must be a constant union between
cause and effect)
Critic – this is based on naturalistic relationships and not on social relationships. Therefore,
they presuppose an absolute law/theory
- Several combinations of factors can lead to a specific outcome
- We employ Qualitative Comparative Analysis (small-medium N)
- Necessary conditions – always present for a certain outcome
- Sufficient conditions – explain the outcome by themselves
3.2 Statistical models
• In a probabilistic world, causal relationships cannot be
ascertained with certainty.
• We use statistical models with a large N (number of cases in a sample) to test the
explanatory power of variable A over variable B
• Ordinary linear regression analysis – workhorse of quantitative analysis in social sciences
, 3.3 Large-N and small-N comparative analysis
Large-N and small-N comparative analysis can determine the explanatory factors of a
specific outcome, but the causal mechanisms remain in a black-box
Process tracing – allow researchers to identify a precise sequence of events and develop a
theoretical explanation for causal mechanisms
In Rajoy’s government the welfare state was re-centralised
- What are the causal mechanisms in this change of the
(des)centralization of welfare in Spain?
- Process tracing – interviews and focus groups with policymakers inthe
Spanish ‘Consejerías’
CHAPTER 2
1. Basic distinctions in research designs and methods
Idiographic (case study analysis in detail) vs nomothetic (establish general patters with
theory-building potential) methods
Qualitative (not possible to develop broad generalisations, therefore we need to ground
theories on fieldwork and qualitative data) vs quantitative (attempt to approximate the
universality of natural sciences with complex statistical and experimental designs) divide.
Deductive (deducts from given assumptions or theories) vs inductive (build-theory from the
bottom-up) forms of reasoning and theory building
Experimental (tries to emulate a laboratory-like research situation; control and treatment) vs
observational (researcher does not interfere in the process; gathers information / data)
studies to determine forms of causality
2. Research design
- Before beginning writing a research paper, we need to plan how are you going to design the
study.
- The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible
