Neuropsychology Summary
INDEX
1. Organization of the Brain 2
2. Lateralization and Asymmetry 7
3. Brain Development & Plasticity of the Brain 11
4. The Occipital Lobe 15
5. The Temporal Lobe 19
6. The Parietal Lobe 25
7. The Frontal Lobe 29
8. Brain disorders 32
Ø Neurological disorders 32
Ø Psychiatric & related disorders 37
9. Attention & Consciousness 41
10. The Cases 43
11. Extra: The Lateralization Table (from WG 3) 44
This summary includes (almost) everything from the lectures and info from the book chapters which I
thought is related to the lecture topics
CLAIMER
This summary was made by a student!
Studying from it and relying on it for 100% is your own responsibility.
THANKS & GOOD LUCK!!! J
J YOU CAN DO IT!!! CA
, 2
1 Organization of the Brain (Kolb & Whishaw, Ch. 3, 9)
- Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior ---------------------------------------->
- Ipsilateral – on the same side
- Contralateral – on the opposite side
- Ascending/afferent – from target areas, to spinal cord
- Descending/efferent – to target area, from spinal cord
- Cortical VS subcortical
o In the schematic view of the brain (from the top), the blue areas are cortical
areas (in the middle we see the corpus callosum)
o Cortical areas are the areas on the sides, but also some medial areas can be
cortical!
o E.g. the hippocampus on the medial temporal lobe is cortical, even though it is
situated in the middle of the brain
- Gray matter = brain areas
- White matter = connections (this matter is white
because the connections between neurons are
myelinated (cover in myelin sheaths))
- Axial/horizontal plane = top view
- Coronal plane = frontal view
- Sagittal plane = medial view
Spinal cord
- We have (from top > bottom) 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and 5 sacral nerves in
our spinal cord
- Sensory neurons (afferent) go into the spinal cord at the dorsal
root, and either connect to motor neurons directly (for reflexes) or
transfer sensory info up to supraspinal areas
- Motor neurons (efferent) leave the spinal cord at the ventral root
to carry info to muscles
Blood supply of the brain
- There are 2 internal carotid & 2 vertebral arteries along
the neck
o Connect at the base of the brain, then branch off
into 3 smaller arteries:
- Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA): supplies to medial &
dorsal part of cortex
- Medial Cerebral Artery (MCA): supplies to lateral surface
- Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA): supplies to ventral &
posterior surfaces
- A blood clot in any of these arteries will cause a stroke
(70% of strokes happen because blood clot in medial artery)
HOW SHOULD WE LOOK AT BRAIN FUNCTIONS?
Ventricle theory of Reisch (very old theory)
- The ‘functions’ of the brain are resided in the ventricle system
- This is NOT true!
o Function of choroid plexus (in ventricles) = producing Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF)
o This is the only function!!
, 3
Dynamic localization theory (Luria)
- Complex behavioral functions cannot be localized in 1 brain area
- However, the subcomponents of this complex function can be localized in a specific brain area
o These areas are working together to construct 1 complex behavioral function
Hierarchical structure of the brain – THE TRIUNE BRAIN
Triune Brain (MacLean)
- Neomammalian brain (“new brain”)
- Paleomammalian brain (“midbrain”/limbic system)
- Protoreptilian brain (“old brain”/hindbrain)
Protoreptilian brain
- Localized in the upper part of the spinal cord
- Cerebellum
o Surface has narrow folds
o Many, densely packed neurons
o Important for motor coordination & learning
- Brain stem - Hindbrain
o Reticular formation (“web” of branch areas):
Important for “general arousal” – also called Ascending Reticular Activation System – explained
later
o Medulla: also, vital functions as breathing & HR
o Pons: “bridges” input from cerebellum > brain
- Brain stem – Midbrain (mesencephalon)
o Tectum (roof 3rd ventricle) for posterior sensory info
§ Visual info through superior colliculus (projection from
retina)
§ Auditory info through inferior colliculus (projection
from ear)
o Tegmentum (“floor”) for anterior motor info
§ Red nuclei – limb movement
§ Substantia nigra – connects to forebrain (contains
dopaminergic neurons)
§ Periaqueductal gray matter – controls species-typical
behavior and modulates pain response
- Diencephalon
o Thalamus (+- 20 nuclei)
§ Relay station for all sensory information (except
olfactory information)
§ E.g. lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) receives visual
information, medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) receives
auditory information!
§ Sometimes also relays information between cortical
areas, or between cortex regions & brainstem regions
§ Epithalamus – collection of nuclei involved in hormone
secretion (melatonin), hunger & thirst regulation
o Hypothalamus
§ Regulates eating, sexual behavior, sleep, temperature,
emotional behavior, endocrine functioning
§ Connected with pituitary gland to control endocrine functions
, 4
Ascending Reticular Activation System (ARAS): Important sources of 4 main
neurotransmitters (all SUBCORTICAL)
o Locus Coeruleus (LC) – source of noradrenaline
o Dorsal Raphe Nucleus (DRN) – source of serotonin
o Peduncle Pontine Tegmental Nucleus (PPTM) – source of acetylcholine
o Substantia nigra – source of dopamine
- These 4 neurotransmitters are then projected to the cortex (forebrain)
o All previously mentioned areas (LC, DRN, PPTM, substantia nigra) project
their NT to the basal forebrain. The basal forebrain themselves are also a
source for AcetylCholine. They project that ACh to the full brain/cortex.
o So the ARAS consists of nuclei and of connections
§ This means that ARAS is WHITE (connections) AND GRAY (nuclei)
MATTER.
§ ARAS is also SUBCORTICAL (e.g. substantia nigra) AND CORTICAL (neocortex projection area)
- Basal ganglia
o Consists of caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus
o Caudate nucleus – input from all areas of cortex à send info
through globus pallidus and putamen to thalamus
o Putamen and globus pallidus – output to thalamus & form there to
other cortical areas
o Also connected to midbrain (substantia nigra)
o Basal ganglia are important for movement, 2 main diseases of
controlling movement (Huntington’s & Parkinson’s) are related to
the basal ganglia
§ Huntington’s disease: basal ganglia cells die progressively à excessive movement & chorea
§ Parkinson’s disease: loss of connections into and out of basal ganglia from substantia nigra
à difficulty initiating and stopping movement & rigidity
o Also associated with learning
§ Associative learning (stimulus-response)
§ People with basal ganglia disorders have trouble with S-R actions
Paleomammalian brain
- Integration of internal & external brain = emotional processes and memory
- Location = limbic system (hippocampus, septum,
cingulate cortex)
o Other parts limbic system are amygdala (fear-
/emotion center) and hypothalamus (releases
hormones that activate fight/flight system)
- Functions: olfaction (smell), emotions, memory,
(visuo-)spatial behavior
- BOTH cortical and subcortical
o Hippocampus – location medial temporal
(partially cortical)
§ Involved in visuospatial behavior because the hippocampus has a connection with the
parietal lobe (parieto-hippocampal pathway)
o Cingulate cortex – cortical
o Septum – part of Basal Forebrain, so subcortical
INDEX
1. Organization of the Brain 2
2. Lateralization and Asymmetry 7
3. Brain Development & Plasticity of the Brain 11
4. The Occipital Lobe 15
5. The Temporal Lobe 19
6. The Parietal Lobe 25
7. The Frontal Lobe 29
8. Brain disorders 32
Ø Neurological disorders 32
Ø Psychiatric & related disorders 37
9. Attention & Consciousness 41
10. The Cases 43
11. Extra: The Lateralization Table (from WG 3) 44
This summary includes (almost) everything from the lectures and info from the book chapters which I
thought is related to the lecture topics
CLAIMER
This summary was made by a student!
Studying from it and relying on it for 100% is your own responsibility.
THANKS & GOOD LUCK!!! J
J YOU CAN DO IT!!! CA
, 2
1 Organization of the Brain (Kolb & Whishaw, Ch. 3, 9)
- Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior ---------------------------------------->
- Ipsilateral – on the same side
- Contralateral – on the opposite side
- Ascending/afferent – from target areas, to spinal cord
- Descending/efferent – to target area, from spinal cord
- Cortical VS subcortical
o In the schematic view of the brain (from the top), the blue areas are cortical
areas (in the middle we see the corpus callosum)
o Cortical areas are the areas on the sides, but also some medial areas can be
cortical!
o E.g. the hippocampus on the medial temporal lobe is cortical, even though it is
situated in the middle of the brain
- Gray matter = brain areas
- White matter = connections (this matter is white
because the connections between neurons are
myelinated (cover in myelin sheaths))
- Axial/horizontal plane = top view
- Coronal plane = frontal view
- Sagittal plane = medial view
Spinal cord
- We have (from top > bottom) 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and 5 sacral nerves in
our spinal cord
- Sensory neurons (afferent) go into the spinal cord at the dorsal
root, and either connect to motor neurons directly (for reflexes) or
transfer sensory info up to supraspinal areas
- Motor neurons (efferent) leave the spinal cord at the ventral root
to carry info to muscles
Blood supply of the brain
- There are 2 internal carotid & 2 vertebral arteries along
the neck
o Connect at the base of the brain, then branch off
into 3 smaller arteries:
- Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA): supplies to medial &
dorsal part of cortex
- Medial Cerebral Artery (MCA): supplies to lateral surface
- Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA): supplies to ventral &
posterior surfaces
- A blood clot in any of these arteries will cause a stroke
(70% of strokes happen because blood clot in medial artery)
HOW SHOULD WE LOOK AT BRAIN FUNCTIONS?
Ventricle theory of Reisch (very old theory)
- The ‘functions’ of the brain are resided in the ventricle system
- This is NOT true!
o Function of choroid plexus (in ventricles) = producing Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF)
o This is the only function!!
, 3
Dynamic localization theory (Luria)
- Complex behavioral functions cannot be localized in 1 brain area
- However, the subcomponents of this complex function can be localized in a specific brain area
o These areas are working together to construct 1 complex behavioral function
Hierarchical structure of the brain – THE TRIUNE BRAIN
Triune Brain (MacLean)
- Neomammalian brain (“new brain”)
- Paleomammalian brain (“midbrain”/limbic system)
- Protoreptilian brain (“old brain”/hindbrain)
Protoreptilian brain
- Localized in the upper part of the spinal cord
- Cerebellum
o Surface has narrow folds
o Many, densely packed neurons
o Important for motor coordination & learning
- Brain stem - Hindbrain
o Reticular formation (“web” of branch areas):
Important for “general arousal” – also called Ascending Reticular Activation System – explained
later
o Medulla: also, vital functions as breathing & HR
o Pons: “bridges” input from cerebellum > brain
- Brain stem – Midbrain (mesencephalon)
o Tectum (roof 3rd ventricle) for posterior sensory info
§ Visual info through superior colliculus (projection from
retina)
§ Auditory info through inferior colliculus (projection
from ear)
o Tegmentum (“floor”) for anterior motor info
§ Red nuclei – limb movement
§ Substantia nigra – connects to forebrain (contains
dopaminergic neurons)
§ Periaqueductal gray matter – controls species-typical
behavior and modulates pain response
- Diencephalon
o Thalamus (+- 20 nuclei)
§ Relay station for all sensory information (except
olfactory information)
§ E.g. lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) receives visual
information, medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) receives
auditory information!
§ Sometimes also relays information between cortical
areas, or between cortex regions & brainstem regions
§ Epithalamus – collection of nuclei involved in hormone
secretion (melatonin), hunger & thirst regulation
o Hypothalamus
§ Regulates eating, sexual behavior, sleep, temperature,
emotional behavior, endocrine functioning
§ Connected with pituitary gland to control endocrine functions
, 4
Ascending Reticular Activation System (ARAS): Important sources of 4 main
neurotransmitters (all SUBCORTICAL)
o Locus Coeruleus (LC) – source of noradrenaline
o Dorsal Raphe Nucleus (DRN) – source of serotonin
o Peduncle Pontine Tegmental Nucleus (PPTM) – source of acetylcholine
o Substantia nigra – source of dopamine
- These 4 neurotransmitters are then projected to the cortex (forebrain)
o All previously mentioned areas (LC, DRN, PPTM, substantia nigra) project
their NT to the basal forebrain. The basal forebrain themselves are also a
source for AcetylCholine. They project that ACh to the full brain/cortex.
o So the ARAS consists of nuclei and of connections
§ This means that ARAS is WHITE (connections) AND GRAY (nuclei)
MATTER.
§ ARAS is also SUBCORTICAL (e.g. substantia nigra) AND CORTICAL (neocortex projection area)
- Basal ganglia
o Consists of caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus
o Caudate nucleus – input from all areas of cortex à send info
through globus pallidus and putamen to thalamus
o Putamen and globus pallidus – output to thalamus & form there to
other cortical areas
o Also connected to midbrain (substantia nigra)
o Basal ganglia are important for movement, 2 main diseases of
controlling movement (Huntington’s & Parkinson’s) are related to
the basal ganglia
§ Huntington’s disease: basal ganglia cells die progressively à excessive movement & chorea
§ Parkinson’s disease: loss of connections into and out of basal ganglia from substantia nigra
à difficulty initiating and stopping movement & rigidity
o Also associated with learning
§ Associative learning (stimulus-response)
§ People with basal ganglia disorders have trouble with S-R actions
Paleomammalian brain
- Integration of internal & external brain = emotional processes and memory
- Location = limbic system (hippocampus, septum,
cingulate cortex)
o Other parts limbic system are amygdala (fear-
/emotion center) and hypothalamus (releases
hormones that activate fight/flight system)
- Functions: olfaction (smell), emotions, memory,
(visuo-)spatial behavior
- BOTH cortical and subcortical
o Hippocampus – location medial temporal
(partially cortical)
§ Involved in visuospatial behavior because the hippocampus has a connection with the
parietal lobe (parieto-hippocampal pathway)
o Cingulate cortex – cortical
o Septum – part of Basal Forebrain, so subcortical
