PHILOSOPHY 102 OUTLINE MIDTERM TEST QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

PHILOSOPHY 102 OUTLINE MIDTERM TEST QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS What is Philosophy? Thinking Philosophically About Life 1.1 Why Study Philosophy? (i) Philosophy allows one to confront the deeper questions of the world and life. (ii) Philosophy helps students enrich their understanding of the world and their own lives. 1.2 Defining Philosophy (i) Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom. (ii) Philosophy begins with wonder. (iii) Philosophy is a dynamic process. (iv) The ultimate aim of philosophy is complete liberty of mind, independence of any prejudice, morality, freedom, and to answer “what is it all about?” 1.3 Thinking Philosophically: Becoming a Critical Thinker (i) There is a difference between “having” a philosophy and “doing” philosophy. (ii) “Having” a philosophy is the set of beliefs one holds to guide their actions. (iii) “Doing” philosophy is critically thinking about one’s set of beliefs. (iv) Qualities of a critical thinker are: a. Open-minded b. Knowledgeable c. Mentally active d. Curious e. Independent thinkers f. Skilled discussants g. Insightful h. Self-aware i. Creative j. Passionate (v) Process of critical thinking: a. Develop your point of view b. Support your point of view c. Consider other points of view d. Arrive at a conclusion e. Consider the consequences 1.4 Understanding Arguments (i) The structure of an argument is a group of statements in which there are certain statements (premises or reasons) offered in support of another statement (conclusion). (ii) There is a difference between certain cue words that signal premises or reasons and certain cue words that signal conclusions. (iii) Evaluating arguments entails determining the truth of the supporting reasons and ensuring the premises or reasons support the conclusion. If the argument has true premises or reasons and is valid, the argument is sound. If not, the argument is unsound. (iv) Deductive argument forms: a. Categorical syllogism b. Modus ponens c. Modus tollens d. Disjunctive syllogism (v) Inductive arguments: a. Causal reasoning b. Empirical generalization (vi) Informal fallacies: a. Fallacies of false generalization i. Hasty generalizations ii. Sweeping generalizations iii. False dilemmas b. Causal fallacies i. Questionable cause ii. Misidentification of the cause iii. Post hoc ergo propter hoc iv. Slippery slope c. Fallacies of Relevance i. Appeal to authority/tradition/bandwagon ii. Appeal to emotion iii. Appeal to personal attack iv. Red herring 1.5 Branches of Philosophy (i) Metaphysics is the study of the ultimate characteristics of reality or existence. (ii) Epistemology is the study of knowledge, identifying and developing criteria and methodologies for what we know and why we know it. (iii) Ethics is the study of moral values and principles. (iv) Political and social philosophy is the study of social values and political forms of government and the nature of justice. (v) Aesthetics is the study of beauty, art, and taste. (vi) Logic is the branch of philosophy that seeks to establish the rules for correct reasoning, clear understanding, and valid arguments. 1.6 Reading Critically: Working with Primary Sources (i) If one wishes to think philosophically, one must develop their ability to think critically and analyze the ideas of great thinkers, present and past. 1.7 Making Connections: The Search for a Meaningful Life (i) Through the study of philosophy, students are able to enrich their understanding of the world and their lives. The study of philosophy allows one to search for the meaningful life. 2 What is the Philosopher’s Way? Socrates and the Examined Life 2.1 Socrates: A Model for Humanity (i) Socrates exemplified the characteristics and qualities of a critical thinker. (ii) The pre-Socratic philosophers attempted to understand the world and life through reason and observation rather than superstition and myth. a. Thales argued that water is the primary substance. b. Anaximenes argued that air is the primary substance. c. Heraclitus argued that all things are in a constant state of change and the universe is governed by logos. d. Democritus argued that all matter is composed of indivisible atoms. e. Anaxagoras argued that the universe is composed of matter and governed by nous. f. Pythagoras argued that the fundamental principles of the universe are mathematical relations and the human soul is immortal. g. Parmenides argued that reality is unchanging and eternal, and the world of change is an illusion. (iii) The Socratic method investigates complex issues though a question and answer format. (iv) Socrates believed that, through the Socratic method, individuals can explore profound questions, enabling them to “give birth” to their own understanding as a midwife assists those women in giving birth to infants. (v) The oracle at Delphi pronounced Socrates the wisest of men and Socrates spent most of his time trying to question the meaning of the oracle since he believed he was ignorant. Thus, Socrates concluded that wisdom is the recognition of the limit of one’s understanding of the world and life and remaining true to the qualities of a critical thinker. 2.2 The Socratic Method (i) The goal of dialectic (Greek for to argue or converse) is to achieve a deep, clear, rationally founded understanding of the most significant areas of human experience: knowledge, justice, morality, religion, beauty, goodness, and the traits of good character. (ii) Characteristics of the Sophists: a. Relativists b. Skeptics c. Rhetoriticians d. Egoists e. Pragmatists (iii) Socrates employed irony against the Sophists. Irony is a form of rhetoric that has at least two conflicting—not contradictory—levels of meaning; an obvious and a hidden meaning. 2.3 Socrates Central Concern: The Soul (i) Psyche (Greek for soul) is the identity of a person; it is immortal and imperishable. (ii) Socrates proposed that to care for the soul is to adhere to the following principles: a. “the unexamined life is not worth living” b. “the truth lies within each of us” c. “we should strive for excellence in all areas of life” d. “no one knowingly does evil” e. “it is better to suffer wickedness than to commit it” 2.4 The Trial and Death of Socrates (i) The Apology is the account of Socrates trial in which he defended himself against the charges of “corrupting the youth” and “not believing in the gods whom the state believes in, but in other divinities.” (ii) Socrates was sentenced to death after his insistence that it is right to think independently and pursue truth. 2.5 Making Connections: Socrates Legacy (i) Considered the “father of Western philosophy” because: a. Socrates was the catalyst for a significant advancement in human consciousness. b. Socrates was an archetypal thinker, a quintessential model of rational inquiry. c. Socrates was committed to making our actions reflect our convictions. d. Socrates believed that philosophical inquiry was a social activity. e. Socrates was a heroic martyr to enlightened thinking and virtuous living. Socrates died for his beliefs. Moreover, Socrates appears to have died with great dignity and a smile on his face. 3 Who Are You? Consciousness, Identity, and the Self 3.1 Know Thyself? (i) What the self is defies a clear understanding to the average person. (ii) The self can be understood in light of the following beliefs: a. A unique personal identity that remains the same over time. b. The same as “soul.” c. Something different from “body.” d. Something that can be understood using reason. e. Something that will continue to exist after the body dies. f. Something that connects with other selves in a personal way. 3.2 The Soul Is Immortal: Socrates and Plato (i) Socrates believed reason was the way to know who we are, who we should be, and who we will become. He argues that the soul survives the death of the body. (ii) Reality consists of two worlds, the physical world in which change and imperfection are qualities and the intellectual world in which permanence, eternity, and immortality are qualities. This intellectual world consists of concepts such as truth, goodness, and beauty. (iii) According to Plato the soul consists of reason, physical appetite, and spirit or passion. Happiness is attainable if and only if reason rules physical appetite and spirit. (iv) Spellman criticizes Plato’s view of the power of reason and denying the importance of the body and emotions. She and other feminists argue that this view is insidious since it seems to relegate women to an “inferior” state of being. (v) Due to Socrates’ and Plato’s metaphysical views, central features of Western culture’s view of the human self have developed: a. The existence of an immaterial reality separate from the physical world. b. The radical distinction between an immaterial soul and physical body. c. The existence of an immortal soul that finds it ultimate fulfillment in union with the eternal, transcendent realm. 3:3 Philosophical Perspectives During the Middle Ages (i) Saint Augustine Synthesis of Plato and Christianity • The existence of an immaterial reality separate from the physical world. • The radical distinction between an immaterial soul and physical body. • The existence of an immortal soul that finds its ultimate fulfillment in union with the eternal, transcendent realm. (ii) Saint Augustine Synthesis of Aristotle and Christianity 3:4 Descartes’ Modern Perspective on the Self (i) Descartes, “the father and founder of modern philosophy,” was concerned with understanding the thinking or reasoning process employed to answer philosophical questions and its relation to the human self. (ii) In order to develop well-informed beliefs, Descartes held that one must doubt all truths that are not certain and indubitable. (iii) Given this method of doubt, Descartes was able to conclude through the use of reason that since I think, I am. Cogito Ergo Sum. (iv) Descartes was a devout dualist in the sense that the self consists of an immaterial, spiritual soul absolutely distinct from a finite, material body. (v) The immaterial soul is governed by God and the laws of reason. (vi) Rationalism is the epistemological view that reason is the primary source of all knowledge and only through reason can we understand sense experience and reach sound and cogent conclusions. 3:5 The Self is Consciousness: Locke (i) Locke held that the mind or soul was a tabula rasa (blank slate). (ii) Personal identity, or knowledge of the self as a person, requires consciousness of our constantly perceiving self connect by memories. It is memory that connects our self at one moment to our self at other moments. (iii) Empiricism is the epistemological view that sense experience is the primary source of all knowledge and a care attention to sense experience enables us to understand the world and reach cogent conclusions. 3:6 There is No Self: Hume (i) Hume, a devout empiricist, claimed there is no self. Memories and experiences consist of impressions and ideas, which are distinct and variable. Per Hume, impressions are basic sensations of experience and ideas are copies of impressions. Due to the discontinuity of our memories and experiences, there can be no impression or idea of a self or personal identity. (ii) The self, according to Hume, is “a bundle or collection of different perceptions.” (iii) Since there is no self while the body lives, there can be immortal soul that survives death. 3:7 We Construct the Self: Kant (i) Kant, awakened by Hume from his “dogmatic slumber,” attempted to synthesize empiricism and rationalism. (ii) Kant argued that through a priori categories of the mind, our experiences are arranged and given order by the conscious self, i.e., the world is constructed by the mind. (iii) The self, or “transcendental unifying principle of consciousness,” transcends the senses and unifies our experiences. 3:8 The Self is Multilayered: Freud Freud’s view of the self was multitiered, divided among the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. (i) Unconscious (ii) Conscious (iii) Ego 3:9 The Self is How You Behave: Ryle (i) Behaviorism -focuses of behaviors of people (ii) Ghost in the Machine (iii) Our Knowledge of others person’s minds can only be inferential at best 3:10 The Self is the Brain: Physcialism/Materialism (i) Materialism is the ontological view that all facets of the universe are composed of matter and energy and can be explicated through natural laws. (ii) Per materialists, especially neurophysiologists, the self is inseparable from the substance of the brain and the body’s physiology. (iii) Paul Churchland argues that “folk psychology” will be eliminated once advances in neuroscience develop the vocabulary that will enable us to be objective about the mind, consciousness, and human experience. This view is coined eliminative materialism. 3:11 The Self is Embodied: Husserl and Merleau-Ponty (i) Per phenomenologists such as Husserl and Merleau-Ponty, the self is the unity of mental and physical, a natural synthesis that forms our experience, i.e., the lived world (lebenswelt). (ii) Phenomenology attempts to clarify our understanding of experience and how we experience the world. 3:12 Buddhist Concepts of the Self (i) Buddhists have a concept of “no-self” or anatta. It is composed of five aggregates or elements: a. physical form b. sensation c. conceptualization d. dispositions to act e. consciousness (ii) Anatta is comprised of the continual interaction of these five elements and there is no substance or identity beyond the dynamic interplay of these five elements. 3:13 Making Connections: In Search of the Self (i) What is the self? An innocent question that is anything but innocent. Socrates’ adage “know thyself,” what a wonder, a miracle, and an extraordinary creation. 4 Are You Free? Freedom and Determinism 4.1 Are You the Master of Your Fate? (i) Whether or not we are free is a philosophical question that necessitates deep reflection and analysis. (ii) Beliefs about whether or not we are free effects our ability to change and grow as a person, develop a moral outlook, and participate in a fair and just society. (iii) Determinism is the view that every event, including human actions, are brought about by previous events in accordance with the natural laws that govern the world. Human freedom is an illusion. Some common causes as put forth by determinists are: a. Human nature b. Environment c. Psychological forces d. Social dynamics (iv) Compatibilism is the view that all events, including human actions are caused. However, we can consider human actions free if they are a result of internal motivations, not the product of external influences or constraints. (v) Indeterminism is the view that some events, including human actions, are not necessarily determined by previous events in accordance with the natural laws that govern the world. (vi) Libertarianism is the view that humans are able to make authentically free choices that are not determined by previous events in accordance with the natural laws that govern the world. In other words, given a choice, “we could have done otherwise.” 4.2 Determinism (i) Determinism is based on a scientific model of the physical universe. (ii) In general, determinists, such as Skinner, Freud, and Mill, use the following reasoning: a. Events in the physical world consistently display well-defined causal connections. b. Events in the biological world also consistently display causal connections. c. Because humans are a part of the physical and biological worlds, it is reasonable to assume that all human actions are causally determined. (iii) Baron d’Holbach exemplifies this reasoning when he argues that humans are “connected to universal nature” and subject to “necessary and immutable laws that she imposes on all the beings she contains.” (iv) Determinists hold that human freedom is inhibited by external and internal constraints. External constraints are those imposed by your environment and circumstances. Internal constraints are the limitations to our autonomy imposed by ourselves. 4.3 Compatibilism (i) In general, compatibilists, such as Stace, argue that if human actions are the result of internal motivations and not the product of external constraints, then they are considered “free.” (ii) Schlick disagreed with some compatibilists and argued that some internal constraints can limit our freedom. However, he did argue that we are free when our actions are a result of our “unimpeded rational desires.” (iii) Dennett, a materialist, argues that human freedom is “an evolved creation of human activity and beliefs…and an objective phenomenon, distinct from all other biological conditions and found in only one species, us.” 4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism (i) James argues that determinism cannot account for “the testimony of our direct, lived experience,” which is exhibited in our beliefs about the possibility of self- improvement, determining our moral outlook, choosing spiritual destiny, and social improvement. (ii) Determinism contradicts our lived human experience, i.e., the rational belief that we can make judgments and do make them. (iii) Sartre argues that “we are condemned to be free,” i.e., humans are absolutely responsible to create their own meaningful existence. As a result of this, the human response to this is anguish, abandonment, and despair. Humans are uncertain whether their actions and choices are right or wrong, there is no authority to guide us. This results in angst. 4.5 A Feminist Analysis of Freedom (i) Grimshaw provides a feminist analysis of freedom in which she argues that repressive social forces can erode an individual’s psychological autonomy. She holds that this psychic coercion has forced women to think they are inferior to men. (ii) Psychic coercion is an internal constraint that compromises one’s autonomy and limits their personal freedom. (iii) Free choice is contingent on becoming aware of repressive forces and liberating oneself from them. 4.6 Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis (i) To increase personal freedom, one must confront and analyze external and internal constraints, thus creating options from which to choose. 5 How Can We Know the Nature of Reality? Philosophical Foundations 5.1 What Is the Nature of Reality? (i) Metaphysics is the philosophical investigation of the nature, constitution, and structure of reality (the world, i.e., the domain all experience; past, present, and future). Is reality many or one? (ii) Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and truth. Can we achieve genuine knowledge and understand ultimate truth? 5.2 Reality Is the Eternal Realm of the Forms: Plato (i) Plato was well versed in Heraclitus’ view of “all is change” and “change alone is unchanging” and Parmenides’ view that “all is one” and “change is an illusion.” Plato offered up a solution to these conflicting views of reality. (ii) Plato argued that there are two realities or worlds: a. The world of becoming is the physical world we inhabit and take in through the senses. It is constantly changing, evolving, and disappearing. b. The world of being is the intellectual world or “reality.” It is eternal, unchanging, and knowable through the faculty of reason. This world consists of Eidos (Greek for Forms, ideas archetypes, or essences). (iii) The divided line analogy illustrates Plato’s metaphysics and epistemology. a. Below the divided line or the world of becoming are images and sensible objects. This includes our imagination and perception. b. Above the divided line or world of being are lower forms and higher forms. This includes our reasoning and understanding. (iv) Genuine knowledge, according to Plato, is discovered or recollected by examination of our innate ideas. (v) The “allegory of the cave” illustrates the different realms of reality from lower to higher or less to more. (vi) Plato is considered a rationalist. 5.3 Reality Is the Natural World: Aristotle (i) Aristotle rejected Plato’s metaphysics. Aristotle argued that our soul is inseparable from the body and reality is the natural, physical world. (ii) Reality and things in reality fall into two categories: matter and form. Matter is the physicality of things. Form is the essence of things. Reality and all things in reality contain entelechy, i.e., the creative drive or inner urge that impels all things to achieve their purpose in life. (iii) Aristotle’s metaphysical framework consisted of “The Four Causes” a. Material cause—what something is made of b. Formal cause—the embedded essence of something c. Efficient cause—what sets something in motion d. Final cause—the ultimate purpose of something (iv) Aristotle was an empiricist. 5.4 Can Reality Be Known? Descartes (i) Descartes, a rationalist, developed a “method of doubt” in which one could objectively evaluate all that he knew or believed to be true. He was searching for an Archimedean point for knowledge that was “clear, distinct, and indubitable.” (ii) Descartes was aware that doubting every individual belief was impossible, so doubting the following core beliefs was sufficient: a. How is it possible to be certain of what I think I know? b. What is the reason for believing (or not believing) in a God? c. On what basis should I make ethical decisions? d. How do I know that there is a world that exists outside of my experience? (iii) Given the method of doubt, Descartes concluded all sense experience can be doubted, the distinction between an awake state and dream state is unknowable, and through the “evil genius” conception, mathematical truths are questionable. (iv) As a result, Descartes was left with the doubting entity, which in turn is a form of thinking, thus Descartes escaped the nightmare with the pronouncement cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am). This was the foundation needed. It was clear, distinct, and indubitable and from this he could prove the existence of God and the truth of mathematical formulae through the power of reason. 5.5 Making Connections: Your Beliefs About the World (i) Beliefs represent an interpretation, evaluation, conclusion, or prediction about the world we endorse as true. (ii) Through critical thinking, we can develop informed beliefs and construct the most enlightened knowledge of ourselves and the world.