APPLIED
COGNITIVE
PYCHOLOGY
Literature Summary Summer Semester 2022 – Leiden
University
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
Discussed Articles
Week 2 – Fundamentals:
Wickens, C. D., & Carswell, C. M. (2021). INFORMATION PROCESSING. In G. Salvendy &
W. Karwowski (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS (1st
ed., pp. 114–158). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119636113.ch5
Week 3 – Human Error & Safety:
Hudson, P. (2010). Safety science: It’s not rocket science, it’s much harder. Delft University of
Technology. http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:993726a8-d94f-41a9-b94b-47841a729934
Reason, J. (1995). Understanding adverse events: Human factors. Quality and Safety in Health
Care, 4(2), 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1136/qshc.4.2.80
Reason, J. (2000). Human error: Models and management. BMJ, 320(7237), 768–770.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7237.768
Dekker, S., Cilliers, P., & Hofmeyr, J.-H. (2011). The complexity of failure: Implications of
complexity theory for safety investigations. Safety Science, 49(6), 939–945.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2011.01.008
Week 4 – Courtroom
Wagenaar, W. A., & Crombag, H. F. M. (2012a). 2. On Causal Reasoning or Death in the
Warmoesstraat. In The Popular Policeman and Other Cases (pp. 177–194). Amsterdam
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048503872-012
Wagenaar, W. A., & Crombag, H. F. M. (2012b). 11. Allegation of Sexual Child Abuse in a
Case of Disputed Visitation or Cindy’s Story. In The Popular Policeman and Other Cases:
Psychological Perspectives on Legal Evidence (pp. 177–194). Amsterdam University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048503872-012
Loftus, E. F. (2011). Intelligence gathering post-9/11. American Psychologist, 66(6), 532–541.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024614
Week 5 – Attention & Distraction
Camara Lopez, M., Deliens, G., & Cleeremans, A. (2016). Ecological assessment of divided
attention: What about the current tools and the relevancy of virtual reality. Revue
Neurologique, 172(4–5), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurol.2016.01.399
Schmidt, S. J. (2020). Distracted learning: Big problem and golden opportunity. Journal of
Food Science Education, 19(4), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4329.12206
Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception & Psychophysics,
51(6), 599–606. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211656
Warm, J. S., Parasuraman, R., & Matthews, G. (2008). Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work
and Is Stressful. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics
Society, 50(3), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872008X312152
Wolfe, J. M., & Horowitz, T. S. (2017). Five factors that guide attention in visual search.
Nature Human Behaviour, 1(3), 0058. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0058
Week 6: Human Computer Interaction
Preece, J., Rogers, Y., & Sharp, H. (2015). 1. What is Interaction Design? In Interaction design:
Beyond human-computer interaction (4. Ed (pp. 29 –71). Wiley.
Wickens (2004). 8. Displays.
Wickens (2004). 15. Human-Computer Interaction.
Week 7: Food & Drugs
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D.
(2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to
1
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1),
49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Goldman-Rakic, P. (2000). D1 receptors in prefrontal cells and circuits. Brain Research
Reviews, 31(2–3), 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00045-4
Mattay, V. S., Goldberg, T. E., Fera, F., Hariri, A. R., Tessitore, A., Egan, M. F., Kolachana, B.,
Callicott, J. H., & Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Catechol O -methyltransferase val 158 -met
genotype and individual variation in the brain response to amphetamine. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences, 100(10), 6186–6191.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0931309100
Fillmore, M. T., Rush, C. R., & Hays, L. (2006). Acute effects of cocaine in two models of
inhibitory control: Implications of non-linear dose effects. Addiction, 101(9), 1323–1332.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01522.x
Jongkees, B. J., Hommel, B., Kühn, S., & Colzato, L. S. (2015). Effect of tyrosine
supplementation on clinical and healthy populations under stress or cognitive demands—A
review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 70, 50–57.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.08.014
Colzato, L. S., Jongkees, B. J., Sellaro, R., & Hommel, B. (2013). Working Memory Reloaded:
Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00200
Murphy, S. E., Longhitano, C., Ayres, R. E., Cowen, P. J., & Harmer, C. J. (2006). Tryptophan
supplementation induces a positive bias in the processing of emotional material in healthy
female volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 187(1), 121–130.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0401-8
Week 8: Automated Vehicles
Carsten, O., & Martens, M. H. (2019). How can humans understand their automated cars? HMI
principles, problems and solutions. Cognition, Technology & Work, 21(1), 3–20.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0484-0
Dey, D. (2020). External communication for self-driving cars: Designing for encounters
between automated vehicles and pedestrians. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.
Hoff, K. A., & Bashir, M. (2015). Trust in Automation: Integrating Empirical Evidence on
Factors That Influence Trust. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and
Ergonomics Society, 57(3), 407–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720814547570
Lee, J. D., & See, K. A. (2004). Trust in Automation: Designing for Appropriate Reliance.
Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 46(1), 50–
80. https://doi.org/10.1518/hfes.46.1.50_30392
2
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
Week 2 – Fundamentals
1. Information Processing – Wickens & Carswell
1.1 Introduction
- Open loop-processing model – psychological
research
- Closed loop model – ecological psychology,
cognitive engineering
- Transformations: time-consuming processes
within information-processing, main source of
error
- Critical in predicting and modelling human-
system interactions
1.2 Three approaches to information processing
- Stage approach:
o Broadbent, Neisser, Posner
o First to draw computer-human analogy
o Information perceived to pass through a finite number of discrete stages → identifiable
by experimental manipulations and brain physiology
o Human factors rationale to stages: different tasks or environmental factors appear to be
influencing processing differently at different stages
§ E.g., aging process affects selection and executions of actions more than speed of
perceptual encoding
§ Decision-making biases can be defined by which stage they are occurring at, e.g.,
perception, diagnosis, action selection
§ Stages may be responsible for qualitatively different errors
o No need to assume that processing starts at stage 1, e.g., if one has an intention to act,
processing can start with the response
o Context-free
o Open-loop processing
o Potential use: describing processes in reading, understanding complex instructions under
stress, or dealing with highly symbolic logical systems (e.g., the logic of computers,
information retrieval systems, or decision tree analysis
- Ecological Approach
o Emphasis on integrated flow of information through human rather than concrete stages
- environment, context
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
o modelling the perceptual characteristics of the environment to which the user is
“tuned” and responds to meet the goals of a particular task
o closed-loop processing
o most relevant to
§ describing human behaviour in interaction with natural environment, e.g.,
walking/driving through natural spaces or manipulating objects directly
§ direct-manipulation interfaces: design of controls and displays that mimic
characteristic of the natural environment
§ design of interfaces that mimic characteristics of how users think about a physical
process, e.g., designing effective displays of energy conversion processes such as
those found in a nuclear reactor
§ naturalistic decision making: performance modelling that emphasize people
working with domains and systems about which they are experts
o Potential use: modelling vehicle control
- Both can be used in harmony
- Cognitive Engineering/Cognitive Ergonomics
o Hybrid of stages and ecological
o Ecological: careful understanding of the environment/context and task constraints for
operator
§ Specifically applied to human interaction with physical systems and environments
(Newtonian Physics)
o Stages (cognitive): modelling and understanding the knowledge structures that operators
have of domains in which they must work and KL structures of computer agents in the
system
§ Design of any system about which the human operator can acquire knowledge which
have no physical analogy (e.g., symbolic computer systems)
o Essential: understanding the vulnerabilities of processes and capitalizing, where
possible, on their strengths which can provide an important key to effective human
factors of system design.
- Information processing model:
o Ecological approach = feedback to complete closed-loop cycle
o Human attention as
§ Selective agent: chooses and constrains information that will be perceived
§ Task-management agent: constrains what tasks (or mental operations) can be
performed simultaneously/concurrently
1
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
1.3 Selecting Information
- Human attention responsible for filtering information (Broadbent)
- Selective attention: choses what to process in the environment: SEEV, in which P(A) = S
− EF + EX × V
o Salient Features: capture attention
§ Auditory better than visual
§ Visual: onset of stimulus important → flashing as visual alert
§ Uniqueness less strong
§ Bottom-up (stimulus-driven) allocation of attention
o Expectancy: knowledge regarding the probable time and location of information
availability
§ Frequently changing areas scanned more often (e.g., scanning road instead of inside
car more while driving) → higher bandwidth (or frequency)
§ Helps cueing in guiding attention (e.g., auditory warn tone in car guides attention
towards display as we expect there to be an abnormal reading)
o Value: importance of knowing that information in carrying out useful tasks, or the costs
of failing to note important information
§ Modulator for expectancy (bandwidth or frequency): probability of attending
somewhere, p(A), is equal to the expected value of information sources to be seen at
that location
§ Experienced operators almost only guide attention through expectancy x value →
well-trained operator develop scanning habits that internalize the expectancy and
2
COGNITIVE
PYCHOLOGY
Literature Summary Summer Semester 2022 – Leiden
University
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
Discussed Articles
Week 2 – Fundamentals:
Wickens, C. D., & Carswell, C. M. (2021). INFORMATION PROCESSING. In G. Salvendy &
W. Karwowski (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS (1st
ed., pp. 114–158). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119636113.ch5
Week 3 – Human Error & Safety:
Hudson, P. (2010). Safety science: It’s not rocket science, it’s much harder. Delft University of
Technology. http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:993726a8-d94f-41a9-b94b-47841a729934
Reason, J. (1995). Understanding adverse events: Human factors. Quality and Safety in Health
Care, 4(2), 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1136/qshc.4.2.80
Reason, J. (2000). Human error: Models and management. BMJ, 320(7237), 768–770.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7237.768
Dekker, S., Cilliers, P., & Hofmeyr, J.-H. (2011). The complexity of failure: Implications of
complexity theory for safety investigations. Safety Science, 49(6), 939–945.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2011.01.008
Week 4 – Courtroom
Wagenaar, W. A., & Crombag, H. F. M. (2012a). 2. On Causal Reasoning or Death in the
Warmoesstraat. In The Popular Policeman and Other Cases (pp. 177–194). Amsterdam
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048503872-012
Wagenaar, W. A., & Crombag, H. F. M. (2012b). 11. Allegation of Sexual Child Abuse in a
Case of Disputed Visitation or Cindy’s Story. In The Popular Policeman and Other Cases:
Psychological Perspectives on Legal Evidence (pp. 177–194). Amsterdam University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048503872-012
Loftus, E. F. (2011). Intelligence gathering post-9/11. American Psychologist, 66(6), 532–541.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024614
Week 5 – Attention & Distraction
Camara Lopez, M., Deliens, G., & Cleeremans, A. (2016). Ecological assessment of divided
attention: What about the current tools and the relevancy of virtual reality. Revue
Neurologique, 172(4–5), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurol.2016.01.399
Schmidt, S. J. (2020). Distracted learning: Big problem and golden opportunity. Journal of
Food Science Education, 19(4), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4329.12206
Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception & Psychophysics,
51(6), 599–606. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211656
Warm, J. S., Parasuraman, R., & Matthews, G. (2008). Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work
and Is Stressful. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics
Society, 50(3), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872008X312152
Wolfe, J. M., & Horowitz, T. S. (2017). Five factors that guide attention in visual search.
Nature Human Behaviour, 1(3), 0058. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0058
Week 6: Human Computer Interaction
Preece, J., Rogers, Y., & Sharp, H. (2015). 1. What is Interaction Design? In Interaction design:
Beyond human-computer interaction (4. Ed (pp. 29 –71). Wiley.
Wickens (2004). 8. Displays.
Wickens (2004). 15. Human-Computer Interaction.
Week 7: Food & Drugs
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D.
(2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to
1
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1),
49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Goldman-Rakic, P. (2000). D1 receptors in prefrontal cells and circuits. Brain Research
Reviews, 31(2–3), 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00045-4
Mattay, V. S., Goldberg, T. E., Fera, F., Hariri, A. R., Tessitore, A., Egan, M. F., Kolachana, B.,
Callicott, J. H., & Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Catechol O -methyltransferase val 158 -met
genotype and individual variation in the brain response to amphetamine. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences, 100(10), 6186–6191.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0931309100
Fillmore, M. T., Rush, C. R., & Hays, L. (2006). Acute effects of cocaine in two models of
inhibitory control: Implications of non-linear dose effects. Addiction, 101(9), 1323–1332.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01522.x
Jongkees, B. J., Hommel, B., Kühn, S., & Colzato, L. S. (2015). Effect of tyrosine
supplementation on clinical and healthy populations under stress or cognitive demands—A
review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 70, 50–57.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.08.014
Colzato, L. S., Jongkees, B. J., Sellaro, R., & Hommel, B. (2013). Working Memory Reloaded:
Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00200
Murphy, S. E., Longhitano, C., Ayres, R. E., Cowen, P. J., & Harmer, C. J. (2006). Tryptophan
supplementation induces a positive bias in the processing of emotional material in healthy
female volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 187(1), 121–130.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0401-8
Week 8: Automated Vehicles
Carsten, O., & Martens, M. H. (2019). How can humans understand their automated cars? HMI
principles, problems and solutions. Cognition, Technology & Work, 21(1), 3–20.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0484-0
Dey, D. (2020). External communication for self-driving cars: Designing for encounters
between automated vehicles and pedestrians. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.
Hoff, K. A., & Bashir, M. (2015). Trust in Automation: Integrating Empirical Evidence on
Factors That Influence Trust. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and
Ergonomics Society, 57(3), 407–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720814547570
Lee, J. D., & See, K. A. (2004). Trust in Automation: Designing for Appropriate Reliance.
Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 46(1), 50–
80. https://doi.org/10.1518/hfes.46.1.50_30392
2
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
Week 2 – Fundamentals
1. Information Processing – Wickens & Carswell
1.1 Introduction
- Open loop-processing model – psychological
research
- Closed loop model – ecological psychology,
cognitive engineering
- Transformations: time-consuming processes
within information-processing, main source of
error
- Critical in predicting and modelling human-
system interactions
1.2 Three approaches to information processing
- Stage approach:
o Broadbent, Neisser, Posner
o First to draw computer-human analogy
o Information perceived to pass through a finite number of discrete stages → identifiable
by experimental manipulations and brain physiology
o Human factors rationale to stages: different tasks or environmental factors appear to be
influencing processing differently at different stages
§ E.g., aging process affects selection and executions of actions more than speed of
perceptual encoding
§ Decision-making biases can be defined by which stage they are occurring at, e.g.,
perception, diagnosis, action selection
§ Stages may be responsible for qualitatively different errors
o No need to assume that processing starts at stage 1, e.g., if one has an intention to act,
processing can start with the response
o Context-free
o Open-loop processing
o Potential use: describing processes in reading, understanding complex instructions under
stress, or dealing with highly symbolic logical systems (e.g., the logic of computers,
information retrieval systems, or decision tree analysis
- Ecological Approach
o Emphasis on integrated flow of information through human rather than concrete stages
- environment, context
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
o modelling the perceptual characteristics of the environment to which the user is
“tuned” and responds to meet the goals of a particular task
o closed-loop processing
o most relevant to
§ describing human behaviour in interaction with natural environment, e.g.,
walking/driving through natural spaces or manipulating objects directly
§ direct-manipulation interfaces: design of controls and displays that mimic
characteristic of the natural environment
§ design of interfaces that mimic characteristics of how users think about a physical
process, e.g., designing effective displays of energy conversion processes such as
those found in a nuclear reactor
§ naturalistic decision making: performance modelling that emphasize people
working with domains and systems about which they are experts
o Potential use: modelling vehicle control
- Both can be used in harmony
- Cognitive Engineering/Cognitive Ergonomics
o Hybrid of stages and ecological
o Ecological: careful understanding of the environment/context and task constraints for
operator
§ Specifically applied to human interaction with physical systems and environments
(Newtonian Physics)
o Stages (cognitive): modelling and understanding the knowledge structures that operators
have of domains in which they must work and KL structures of computer agents in the
system
§ Design of any system about which the human operator can acquire knowledge which
have no physical analogy (e.g., symbolic computer systems)
o Essential: understanding the vulnerabilities of processes and capitalizing, where
possible, on their strengths which can provide an important key to effective human
factors of system design.
- Information processing model:
o Ecological approach = feedback to complete closed-loop cycle
o Human attention as
§ Selective agent: chooses and constrains information that will be perceived
§ Task-management agent: constrains what tasks (or mental operations) can be
performed simultaneously/concurrently
1
, APPLIED COGNITIVE PYCHOLOGY
1.3 Selecting Information
- Human attention responsible for filtering information (Broadbent)
- Selective attention: choses what to process in the environment: SEEV, in which P(A) = S
− EF + EX × V
o Salient Features: capture attention
§ Auditory better than visual
§ Visual: onset of stimulus important → flashing as visual alert
§ Uniqueness less strong
§ Bottom-up (stimulus-driven) allocation of attention
o Expectancy: knowledge regarding the probable time and location of information
availability
§ Frequently changing areas scanned more often (e.g., scanning road instead of inside
car more while driving) → higher bandwidth (or frequency)
§ Helps cueing in guiding attention (e.g., auditory warn tone in car guides attention
towards display as we expect there to be an abnormal reading)
o Value: importance of knowing that information in carrying out useful tasks, or the costs
of failing to note important information
§ Modulator for expectancy (bandwidth or frequency): probability of attending
somewhere, p(A), is equal to the expected value of information sources to be seen at
that location
§ Experienced operators almost only guide attention through expectancy x value →
well-trained operator develop scanning habits that internalize the expectancy and
2
