Lecture 1: History of, and introduction to, psychological
assessment
History of psychological tests
Phrenology (skull) and physiognomy (face) -> It is assumed that the shape of something is telling
something about the personality and intelligence of someone. These are operationalisations of the
idea that the exterior are an indication of a person’s personality and intelligence.
1st psychological assessment : 200 years before christ
18th century : The outside is an indication of the inside : physiognomy and phrenology. Still used
today where someone who looks pretty is nice and someone who is angry is ugly.
19th century : ‘copper era’ : Perception and response speed are indications of intelligence.
Instruments that were usually machines, so therefore copper.
20th century : First intelligence test as we know them today. The idea rose that one can discover
someone’s personality by make them react to unstructured material such as instincts (personality
through projection).
Decision-making
It is easy to draw conclusions on first impression, however they behavior may be the result of
circumstances.
Fundamental attribution error : The tendency to overestimate the influence of dispositions (traits)
and to underestimate the influence of situational factors (states, reaction to situation).
Possible solution = Pay attention to the circumstances
Why is this relevant for assessment : When assessing you can assume something, but fail to see other
behavior. You could only search for or pay attention to information that is consistent with one’s own
conclusion ; ignore or selectively interpret hypotheses, beliefs or conflicting information.
Possible solution = actively look for information that conflicts with conclusion, hypotheses
and beliefs.
,Salience effect : Giving more weight to striking information than non-striking information when
drawing conclusions.
Possible solution = Objective measurements and awareness
Contrast error : General tendency to judge others in a manner opposite from the way in which one
perceives himself/herself or a previous client due to a perceived difference between self and others
or between clients. An example is that water feels much hotter if you put your hand in cold water
first.
Possible solution = Objective measurements and awareness
Illusory correlation : Perceive links between tests and own conclusions, which do not exist
empirically. This can occur with drawings, people sometimes try and link the drawing and
circumstances
Possible solution = scientific approach
Blind spot bias : The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people and to be less able to
recognize biases in oneself than in others.
Possible solution = Objective measurements and awareness
How do these biases affect the assessment?
- Looking at one client and then at different assessments from different people
o There are great differences in diagnoses in which one explanation could be bias
o Another problem is that ‘raters’ often stop after one classification but there may be
many more and this could also be caused by bias.
Solutions
1. Awareness of the limitations of clinical judgement
2. Include the circumstances
3. Think about verification and falsification
4. Take specific instruments that are as reliable and (ecologically) valid as possible
5. Think about whether one instrument is sufficient
6. Stay critical
7. Follow hypothesis testing model
Diagnostic process
Psychological assessment has a scientific bases:
- If an instrument has measured what it should measure -> valid
- Questions in the questionnaire measure the same thing -> internally consistent
- Responds are the same of participant of the same test -> reliable
What is science?
- Systematic data collection
- In order to test theories
- Transparent, allow replication
- Following the cycle
- Reliable and valid instruments
, Difference in chapters.
5 basic questions : Recognition and explanation
1. Recognition -> What’s going on? What works and what doesn’t?
a. Inventory, description
b. Organize, classify
c. Indicate severity
d. N.B. DSM-5 = classification manual
e. Classification is part of diagnostics (1st step)
2. Explanation -> Why do the problems exist and what maintains them?
a. Locus: person/situation?
b. Nature of control
c. Synchronous = here & now/ diachronous = what preceded it (e.g. youth)?
d. Inducing and persisting conditions
, 3. Prediction -> Development of problem behavior in future?
a. Link predictor (different tests possible) to research, experience
b. E.g. forensic diagnostics: recidivism, leave of absence
4. Indication -> What help is needed and appropriate?
a. Depends on answers to questions or recognition and/ or explanation
b. Knowledge needed about:
i. Treatments, practitioners
ii. Relative usefulness
iii. Acceptance of advice by the client
5. Evaluation -> What was the result of the psychological assessment?
a. Are the results of the diagnostic process used in the treatment/help?
b. Did the diagnostic process and/ or treatment bring about a change in behavior and
experience?
WILL BE AN EXAM QUESTION ABOUT
1. W
2. U
3. N
4. D
5. T
Ethics & closure
Possible consequences of assessment:
- Diagnosis yes/no -> means yes/no treatment
- Yes/no dyslexia certificate
- Reimbursement/no reimbursement for mental health care costs
- Clinic or jail
- On/off leave
NIP code of ethics, basic principles
1. Responsibility
Article 24: ‘Psychologists must exercise restraint when making professional statements in the media
about persons, with or without their consent. They must be aware of their responsibility to prevent
harm’.
2. Integrity
Article 52: ‘Psychologists may not mix professional and non-professional roles that could affect each
other in such a way that the psychologists can no longer be considered able to maintain a
professional distance from the person(s) involved or as a result of which the person(s) involved are
harmed’.
assessment
History of psychological tests
Phrenology (skull) and physiognomy (face) -> It is assumed that the shape of something is telling
something about the personality and intelligence of someone. These are operationalisations of the
idea that the exterior are an indication of a person’s personality and intelligence.
1st psychological assessment : 200 years before christ
18th century : The outside is an indication of the inside : physiognomy and phrenology. Still used
today where someone who looks pretty is nice and someone who is angry is ugly.
19th century : ‘copper era’ : Perception and response speed are indications of intelligence.
Instruments that were usually machines, so therefore copper.
20th century : First intelligence test as we know them today. The idea rose that one can discover
someone’s personality by make them react to unstructured material such as instincts (personality
through projection).
Decision-making
It is easy to draw conclusions on first impression, however they behavior may be the result of
circumstances.
Fundamental attribution error : The tendency to overestimate the influence of dispositions (traits)
and to underestimate the influence of situational factors (states, reaction to situation).
Possible solution = Pay attention to the circumstances
Why is this relevant for assessment : When assessing you can assume something, but fail to see other
behavior. You could only search for or pay attention to information that is consistent with one’s own
conclusion ; ignore or selectively interpret hypotheses, beliefs or conflicting information.
Possible solution = actively look for information that conflicts with conclusion, hypotheses
and beliefs.
,Salience effect : Giving more weight to striking information than non-striking information when
drawing conclusions.
Possible solution = Objective measurements and awareness
Contrast error : General tendency to judge others in a manner opposite from the way in which one
perceives himself/herself or a previous client due to a perceived difference between self and others
or between clients. An example is that water feels much hotter if you put your hand in cold water
first.
Possible solution = Objective measurements and awareness
Illusory correlation : Perceive links between tests and own conclusions, which do not exist
empirically. This can occur with drawings, people sometimes try and link the drawing and
circumstances
Possible solution = scientific approach
Blind spot bias : The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people and to be less able to
recognize biases in oneself than in others.
Possible solution = Objective measurements and awareness
How do these biases affect the assessment?
- Looking at one client and then at different assessments from different people
o There are great differences in diagnoses in which one explanation could be bias
o Another problem is that ‘raters’ often stop after one classification but there may be
many more and this could also be caused by bias.
Solutions
1. Awareness of the limitations of clinical judgement
2. Include the circumstances
3. Think about verification and falsification
4. Take specific instruments that are as reliable and (ecologically) valid as possible
5. Think about whether one instrument is sufficient
6. Stay critical
7. Follow hypothesis testing model
Diagnostic process
Psychological assessment has a scientific bases:
- If an instrument has measured what it should measure -> valid
- Questions in the questionnaire measure the same thing -> internally consistent
- Responds are the same of participant of the same test -> reliable
What is science?
- Systematic data collection
- In order to test theories
- Transparent, allow replication
- Following the cycle
- Reliable and valid instruments
, Difference in chapters.
5 basic questions : Recognition and explanation
1. Recognition -> What’s going on? What works and what doesn’t?
a. Inventory, description
b. Organize, classify
c. Indicate severity
d. N.B. DSM-5 = classification manual
e. Classification is part of diagnostics (1st step)
2. Explanation -> Why do the problems exist and what maintains them?
a. Locus: person/situation?
b. Nature of control
c. Synchronous = here & now/ diachronous = what preceded it (e.g. youth)?
d. Inducing and persisting conditions
, 3. Prediction -> Development of problem behavior in future?
a. Link predictor (different tests possible) to research, experience
b. E.g. forensic diagnostics: recidivism, leave of absence
4. Indication -> What help is needed and appropriate?
a. Depends on answers to questions or recognition and/ or explanation
b. Knowledge needed about:
i. Treatments, practitioners
ii. Relative usefulness
iii. Acceptance of advice by the client
5. Evaluation -> What was the result of the psychological assessment?
a. Are the results of the diagnostic process used in the treatment/help?
b. Did the diagnostic process and/ or treatment bring about a change in behavior and
experience?
WILL BE AN EXAM QUESTION ABOUT
1. W
2. U
3. N
4. D
5. T
Ethics & closure
Possible consequences of assessment:
- Diagnosis yes/no -> means yes/no treatment
- Yes/no dyslexia certificate
- Reimbursement/no reimbursement for mental health care costs
- Clinic or jail
- On/off leave
NIP code of ethics, basic principles
1. Responsibility
Article 24: ‘Psychologists must exercise restraint when making professional statements in the media
about persons, with or without their consent. They must be aware of their responsibility to prevent
harm’.
2. Integrity
Article 52: ‘Psychologists may not mix professional and non-professional roles that could affect each
other in such a way that the psychologists can no longer be considered able to maintain a
professional distance from the person(s) involved or as a result of which the person(s) involved are
harmed’.
