Rome
Early Roman History: 753-265 BC
The Western Mediterranean
The history of the western Mediterranean differs from that of the ancient world
further east: only between 800-500 BC civilisation compared here.
The Etruscans
- They were in central Italy.
- They lived in city-states that were associated in a loose federal organisation.
- Urban civilisation.
- Cities became wealthy thanks to the workmanship of their craft products.
- Etruscan civilisation included Near Eastern, Italian and Greek elements.
- Very powerful in 6-7th century BC: central Italy, Po valley and Campania,
then the competition was too much.
Carthage
- Colony founded by the Phoenician.
- Prosperous city: wealthy based on maritime trade and agricultural activities.
- Held a monopoly on the southwest Mediterranean and on the Atlantic Ocean.
- Governed by landowners and rich merchants.
The Origins of Rome
- According to Roman legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus → first
king.
- The earliest Roman population was a mixture of Latins, Etruscans and
Sabines.
- Around 600 BC Rome grew into a true city, then rapidly expanded into one of
the biggest city in Italy.
- Rome was first ruled by seven kings, most of them were probably Etruscan.
State and society in early Rome
Classes in early Rome:
- Upper layer of aristocratic families who owned a large portion of the land
- Well-to-do peasants
- Poorer peasants.
, The peasants (clients) were dependent or protected by the aristocrats
(patroni), the peasants that didn’t join the patronage were called “plebeians”,
while the aristocrats that claim to descend from heroes of Roman legend
were called to as “patrician”s.
Kings:
- Enjoyed absolute power (imperium).
- Assisted by the Senate (council consisted of the heads of the aristocratic
families.
- They could call together the Comitia Curiata*, the organ that formally
conferred the imperium on the kings.
*Consisted in thirty curiae (each had a vote); a curia consisted of a number of gentes
(clans) who claimed to be linked by a common ancestor and who shared certain
traditions.
State organs:
- Executive authority.
- Aristocratic council.
- Public assembly (little power).
Within the family, the pater familias* enjoyed absolute authority → absolute control
over his res privata, his household.
* Familia included clientes and slaves
The army and the Comitia Centuriata
In the 6th century the Roman started to fight like the Greek (phalanx).
The penultimate king adapted the organisation of civilians to the changed fighting
method and divide the civilians into property classes:
- The wealthiest citizens served in the cavalry (equites = knight)
- The wealthiest peasant served as heavily armed infantrymen.
- The member of the lower classes served as light-armed soldiers.
This classification based on property was employed in imposing property taxes
(tributum) and in organising the Comitia Centuriata:
- There were five property classes, each subdivided into centuriae (1
centuria=100 men) that had one vote
- The centuriae were divided between property classes so that the first
class, cavalry, could obtain the majority.
- The citizens without property were excluded from the army, but they were in
the assembly in an added centuria.
,In 510/9 BC - a revolt led by L. Junius Brutus turned the Roman world into a republic
- The republic was dominated by wealthy families,
Roman Republic: 509-27 BC
The Early Republic: 509-265 BC
State and Society
Executive Power: Consulus
- Two annually elected magistrates.
- Power restricted because they could check one another's acts by right of veto
and because they could stay in charge just for one year.
- After one year any dissatisfied citizens could file complaints against them.
Treasurers: Quaestors
- Turned to the Senate for advice in administrative affairs, usually followed
senate's advice.
Religious Authority: rex sacrorum & Pontifex Maximus
- Pontifex Maximus - president of the college of pontifices (main college of
priests).
- Ensured that proper practices took place when prayers and sacrifices were
offered to the state Gods.
Emergencies: dictator
- He was granted absolute power for six months in case of war or civil strife.
After the fall of the king the scene was dominated by the patricians:
- they provided magistrates, pontifices and member of important priesthood.
- They controlled every aspect of social and economic life.
- Only member of the society familiar with the unwritten laws.
The history of the Roman republic up the third century BC is dominated by two
historical processes:
1. The expansion of the Roman empire in Itlay.
2. The so-called “struggle of the orders” between patricians and plebeians.
1. Roman Expansion in Italy: 509-265 BC
- Initial defensive nature: constant conflict between Rome and tribes who lived
in the hills around Latinum and the southern Etruscan cities.
- Main issue: Fertile Land in the valleys and coastal plains, and control of land
routes between Etruria and Campania.
- Rome eventually gained decisive control over other Latin city-states.
- After 350 Expansion in Italy began
- Brought most fertile and densely populated regions within Rome's
sphere of influence.
, Colonization:
- Rome founded colonies in most of the land she conquered
- Her custom was to confiscate part of the territory of her subjected
opponents and to turn it into Roman public land owned by the state,
these colonies were called Latin colonies (coloniae Latinae) → colonists
had Latin right (entitle to Roman citizenship if the returned to Rome)
- They were scattered across Italy, they were not independent
city-states, although they enjoyed local autonomy.
- Smaller colonies founded as military bases = Roman colonies (coloniae
Romanae) → colonists had full Roman citizenship.
Municipia:
- Roman city outside Rome that already existed.
- If they had language and culture similar to the Romans they could be a
Roman city with local autonomy → citizen had Roman citizen right, but
couldn’t vote ⇨ “Romanization”.
2. The Struggle of the Orders: 500-287 BC
Plebeians: Not a clearly defined social group. There were rich, moderate and poor
plebeians:
- Rich: Large landowners who had arrived in Rome after patricians had
closed their ranks. Wanted to be admitted in the governing Elite.
- Moderate: Landowning farmers, merchants, Roman military.
- Poor: Plebeians were small farmers, craftsmen and day labourers.
Wanted relaxation of harsh debt laws.
- All plebeians, especially the poor, demanded:
- That the main rules of the unwritten law be recorded in a written code.
- All acts of patrician magistrates are checked
- Plebeian assembly (Concilium Plebis) be recognised alongside the
Senate.
- Plebeians started to rise up → they were in a powerful position because their
middle ranks formed the backbone of the Roman army.
- The situation in Rome became quite critical at times - at points, the entire
plebeian body seceded from political life and military patricians made
political concessions.
Timeline of political concessions:
Date: Events
494 BC The Recognition of the tribunes as the official champions of the
plebeians.
- Elected annually in the Concilium Plebis.
- Had the right to intercede to prevent the implementation of
Early Roman History: 753-265 BC
The Western Mediterranean
The history of the western Mediterranean differs from that of the ancient world
further east: only between 800-500 BC civilisation compared here.
The Etruscans
- They were in central Italy.
- They lived in city-states that were associated in a loose federal organisation.
- Urban civilisation.
- Cities became wealthy thanks to the workmanship of their craft products.
- Etruscan civilisation included Near Eastern, Italian and Greek elements.
- Very powerful in 6-7th century BC: central Italy, Po valley and Campania,
then the competition was too much.
Carthage
- Colony founded by the Phoenician.
- Prosperous city: wealthy based on maritime trade and agricultural activities.
- Held a monopoly on the southwest Mediterranean and on the Atlantic Ocean.
- Governed by landowners and rich merchants.
The Origins of Rome
- According to Roman legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus → first
king.
- The earliest Roman population was a mixture of Latins, Etruscans and
Sabines.
- Around 600 BC Rome grew into a true city, then rapidly expanded into one of
the biggest city in Italy.
- Rome was first ruled by seven kings, most of them were probably Etruscan.
State and society in early Rome
Classes in early Rome:
- Upper layer of aristocratic families who owned a large portion of the land
- Well-to-do peasants
- Poorer peasants.
, The peasants (clients) were dependent or protected by the aristocrats
(patroni), the peasants that didn’t join the patronage were called “plebeians”,
while the aristocrats that claim to descend from heroes of Roman legend
were called to as “patrician”s.
Kings:
- Enjoyed absolute power (imperium).
- Assisted by the Senate (council consisted of the heads of the aristocratic
families.
- They could call together the Comitia Curiata*, the organ that formally
conferred the imperium on the kings.
*Consisted in thirty curiae (each had a vote); a curia consisted of a number of gentes
(clans) who claimed to be linked by a common ancestor and who shared certain
traditions.
State organs:
- Executive authority.
- Aristocratic council.
- Public assembly (little power).
Within the family, the pater familias* enjoyed absolute authority → absolute control
over his res privata, his household.
* Familia included clientes and slaves
The army and the Comitia Centuriata
In the 6th century the Roman started to fight like the Greek (phalanx).
The penultimate king adapted the organisation of civilians to the changed fighting
method and divide the civilians into property classes:
- The wealthiest citizens served in the cavalry (equites = knight)
- The wealthiest peasant served as heavily armed infantrymen.
- The member of the lower classes served as light-armed soldiers.
This classification based on property was employed in imposing property taxes
(tributum) and in organising the Comitia Centuriata:
- There were five property classes, each subdivided into centuriae (1
centuria=100 men) that had one vote
- The centuriae were divided between property classes so that the first
class, cavalry, could obtain the majority.
- The citizens without property were excluded from the army, but they were in
the assembly in an added centuria.
,In 510/9 BC - a revolt led by L. Junius Brutus turned the Roman world into a republic
- The republic was dominated by wealthy families,
Roman Republic: 509-27 BC
The Early Republic: 509-265 BC
State and Society
Executive Power: Consulus
- Two annually elected magistrates.
- Power restricted because they could check one another's acts by right of veto
and because they could stay in charge just for one year.
- After one year any dissatisfied citizens could file complaints against them.
Treasurers: Quaestors
- Turned to the Senate for advice in administrative affairs, usually followed
senate's advice.
Religious Authority: rex sacrorum & Pontifex Maximus
- Pontifex Maximus - president of the college of pontifices (main college of
priests).
- Ensured that proper practices took place when prayers and sacrifices were
offered to the state Gods.
Emergencies: dictator
- He was granted absolute power for six months in case of war or civil strife.
After the fall of the king the scene was dominated by the patricians:
- they provided magistrates, pontifices and member of important priesthood.
- They controlled every aspect of social and economic life.
- Only member of the society familiar with the unwritten laws.
The history of the Roman republic up the third century BC is dominated by two
historical processes:
1. The expansion of the Roman empire in Itlay.
2. The so-called “struggle of the orders” between patricians and plebeians.
1. Roman Expansion in Italy: 509-265 BC
- Initial defensive nature: constant conflict between Rome and tribes who lived
in the hills around Latinum and the southern Etruscan cities.
- Main issue: Fertile Land in the valleys and coastal plains, and control of land
routes between Etruria and Campania.
- Rome eventually gained decisive control over other Latin city-states.
- After 350 Expansion in Italy began
- Brought most fertile and densely populated regions within Rome's
sphere of influence.
, Colonization:
- Rome founded colonies in most of the land she conquered
- Her custom was to confiscate part of the territory of her subjected
opponents and to turn it into Roman public land owned by the state,
these colonies were called Latin colonies (coloniae Latinae) → colonists
had Latin right (entitle to Roman citizenship if the returned to Rome)
- They were scattered across Italy, they were not independent
city-states, although they enjoyed local autonomy.
- Smaller colonies founded as military bases = Roman colonies (coloniae
Romanae) → colonists had full Roman citizenship.
Municipia:
- Roman city outside Rome that already existed.
- If they had language and culture similar to the Romans they could be a
Roman city with local autonomy → citizen had Roman citizen right, but
couldn’t vote ⇨ “Romanization”.
2. The Struggle of the Orders: 500-287 BC
Plebeians: Not a clearly defined social group. There were rich, moderate and poor
plebeians:
- Rich: Large landowners who had arrived in Rome after patricians had
closed their ranks. Wanted to be admitted in the governing Elite.
- Moderate: Landowning farmers, merchants, Roman military.
- Poor: Plebeians were small farmers, craftsmen and day labourers.
Wanted relaxation of harsh debt laws.
- All plebeians, especially the poor, demanded:
- That the main rules of the unwritten law be recorded in a written code.
- All acts of patrician magistrates are checked
- Plebeian assembly (Concilium Plebis) be recognised alongside the
Senate.
- Plebeians started to rise up → they were in a powerful position because their
middle ranks formed the backbone of the Roman army.
- The situation in Rome became quite critical at times - at points, the entire
plebeian body seceded from political life and military patricians made
political concessions.
Timeline of political concessions:
Date: Events
494 BC The Recognition of the tribunes as the official champions of the
plebeians.
- Elected annually in the Concilium Plebis.
- Had the right to intercede to prevent the implementation of
