1
2
3
4
5
6
7 PART ONE
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 Test Construction
17 and
18 Assessment
,19
20 Anita L. Vangelisti
,21
22 F ew teachers regard constructing and grading exams as the most enjoyable aspect of their
job. Some see testing as a necessary but uninspiring part of teaching; others see it as boring,
23 tedious, or even oppressive. Yet most are unwilling to cast aside testing. Why? Because testing
24 serves important functions for teachers and students alike.
25 Teachers use tests above all as a way of gauging what students have learned in a course.
26 Although some people may perform poorly on a given exam due to illness, personal problems, or
27 other factors not immediately related to course content, the accumulation of test scores over a
28 full quarter or semester usually provides a reliable index of what students have learned. In
29 addition, tests provide information that instructors can use to improve their teaching. For
30 example, if a test reveals that most students are having difficulty with particular aspects of the
31 course, the instructor should think about ways she or he can present those aspects more
32 effectively.
33 For students, well-constructed tests provide a stimulus for learning, an important form of
34 feedback concerning their progress in a course, and a guide to help them refine their study
35 habits. In an ideal world, all students would keep up with reading assignments and review their
36 class notes on a regular basis. The reality, however, is that tests stimulate students to digest
37 course material they might otherwise overlook. Studying for exams is one way students learn. In
38 addition, some very important learning takes place after an exam, when students review the
39 items they “missed.” It may become clear, for instance, that a student understood the material
40 presented in lecture and class discussion but did not give sufficient attention to material in the
41 textbook. Knowing this can help the student do better on subsequent exams. Students can also
42 use test results to uncover problems in their study habits. They may discover that they need to
43 devote more time to studying, that they need to study at a more in-depth level, that they need to
44 write out answers to sample questions as part of their studying, or even that they need to meet
45 with an academic counselor to review their study methods.
46 If exams are to function effectively for either teachers or students, however, they must be
47 carefully constructed. Designing a good exam takes considerable time, effort, and resourcefulness.
48 Above all, it requires a clear understanding of one’s educational objectives and of the kinds of
49 exam questions one can use to achieve those objectives. In this essay, we shall focus on both of
50 these issues. In doing so, we shall give special attention to the public speaking course and to the
51 kinds of exam questions in the Test Bank for The Art of Public Speaking.
52 Educational Objectives
53 One of the many challenges of constructing an exam is to design questions that reflect the full
54 scope of the instructor’s educational goals. Although most teachers want students to be able to
55 recall important information from reading, lecture, and discussion, they typically have other
56 instructional goals in mind as well. In public speaking courses, for instance, teachers usually
57 want students to identify the kinds of evidence used by speakers to support their claims. But
58 they also want students to know which kind of evidence might work best in a given situation and
59 to be able to evaluate the quality of particular pieces of evidence in a speech.
, 60 Because instructors usually have multiple learning goals for their students, it is important to
61 construct tests that assess multiple levels of learning. There are several taxonomies of learning
62 in the education literature. Teachers can use those taxonomies to help ensure that the
63 educational goals of their courses match the test questions they use to gauge what students have
64 learned. The most widely used taxonomy for this purpose is Bloom’s taxonomy of educational
65 objectives. This taxonomy identifies six levels of learning—knowledge, comprehension,
66 application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The taxonomy is hierarchically structured so
67 that learning at each of the lower levels must occur before learning at the higher levels is
68 possible. In other words, if learning is to occur at the comprehension level, students must first be
69 secure in their knowledge of the subject matter. Similarly, if learning is to occur at the analysis
70 level, it must be preceded by learning at the knowledge, comprehension, and application levels.
71 The following definitions and examples of test questions will help to illustrate the progressive
72 nature of Bloom’s taxonomy.
73 At the knowledge level, students are expected to recognize and recall key terms, facts,
74 principles, and concepts. A learning objective at the knowledge level might require that students
75 be able to identify the first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence. To determine whether
76 students have achieved this objective, the following question might be included on a test:
77 What is the first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence?
78 a. action
79 b. need
80 c. visualization
81 d. satisfaction
82 e. attention
83
84 The comprehension level goes one step beyond the knowledge level and requires students to
85 explain facts and principles, to interpret information, or to compare and contrast concepts. At this
86 level, an instructional objective might have students compare and contrast public speaking and
87 conversation—as in the following question:
88 One of the major differences between public speaking and ordinary conversation is that
89 public speaking usually requires
90 a. adapting to feedback from listeners.
91 b. a more formal manner of delivery.
92 c. organizing ideas for effective communication.
93 d. tailoring the message to the audience.
2
3
4
5
6
7 PART ONE
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 Test Construction
17 and
18 Assessment
,19
20 Anita L. Vangelisti
,21
22 F ew teachers regard constructing and grading exams as the most enjoyable aspect of their
job. Some see testing as a necessary but uninspiring part of teaching; others see it as boring,
23 tedious, or even oppressive. Yet most are unwilling to cast aside testing. Why? Because testing
24 serves important functions for teachers and students alike.
25 Teachers use tests above all as a way of gauging what students have learned in a course.
26 Although some people may perform poorly on a given exam due to illness, personal problems, or
27 other factors not immediately related to course content, the accumulation of test scores over a
28 full quarter or semester usually provides a reliable index of what students have learned. In
29 addition, tests provide information that instructors can use to improve their teaching. For
30 example, if a test reveals that most students are having difficulty with particular aspects of the
31 course, the instructor should think about ways she or he can present those aspects more
32 effectively.
33 For students, well-constructed tests provide a stimulus for learning, an important form of
34 feedback concerning their progress in a course, and a guide to help them refine their study
35 habits. In an ideal world, all students would keep up with reading assignments and review their
36 class notes on a regular basis. The reality, however, is that tests stimulate students to digest
37 course material they might otherwise overlook. Studying for exams is one way students learn. In
38 addition, some very important learning takes place after an exam, when students review the
39 items they “missed.” It may become clear, for instance, that a student understood the material
40 presented in lecture and class discussion but did not give sufficient attention to material in the
41 textbook. Knowing this can help the student do better on subsequent exams. Students can also
42 use test results to uncover problems in their study habits. They may discover that they need to
43 devote more time to studying, that they need to study at a more in-depth level, that they need to
44 write out answers to sample questions as part of their studying, or even that they need to meet
45 with an academic counselor to review their study methods.
46 If exams are to function effectively for either teachers or students, however, they must be
47 carefully constructed. Designing a good exam takes considerable time, effort, and resourcefulness.
48 Above all, it requires a clear understanding of one’s educational objectives and of the kinds of
49 exam questions one can use to achieve those objectives. In this essay, we shall focus on both of
50 these issues. In doing so, we shall give special attention to the public speaking course and to the
51 kinds of exam questions in the Test Bank for The Art of Public Speaking.
52 Educational Objectives
53 One of the many challenges of constructing an exam is to design questions that reflect the full
54 scope of the instructor’s educational goals. Although most teachers want students to be able to
55 recall important information from reading, lecture, and discussion, they typically have other
56 instructional goals in mind as well. In public speaking courses, for instance, teachers usually
57 want students to identify the kinds of evidence used by speakers to support their claims. But
58 they also want students to know which kind of evidence might work best in a given situation and
59 to be able to evaluate the quality of particular pieces of evidence in a speech.
, 60 Because instructors usually have multiple learning goals for their students, it is important to
61 construct tests that assess multiple levels of learning. There are several taxonomies of learning
62 in the education literature. Teachers can use those taxonomies to help ensure that the
63 educational goals of their courses match the test questions they use to gauge what students have
64 learned. The most widely used taxonomy for this purpose is Bloom’s taxonomy of educational
65 objectives. This taxonomy identifies six levels of learning—knowledge, comprehension,
66 application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The taxonomy is hierarchically structured so
67 that learning at each of the lower levels must occur before learning at the higher levels is
68 possible. In other words, if learning is to occur at the comprehension level, students must first be
69 secure in their knowledge of the subject matter. Similarly, if learning is to occur at the analysis
70 level, it must be preceded by learning at the knowledge, comprehension, and application levels.
71 The following definitions and examples of test questions will help to illustrate the progressive
72 nature of Bloom’s taxonomy.
73 At the knowledge level, students are expected to recognize and recall key terms, facts,
74 principles, and concepts. A learning objective at the knowledge level might require that students
75 be able to identify the first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence. To determine whether
76 students have achieved this objective, the following question might be included on a test:
77 What is the first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence?
78 a. action
79 b. need
80 c. visualization
81 d. satisfaction
82 e. attention
83
84 The comprehension level goes one step beyond the knowledge level and requires students to
85 explain facts and principles, to interpret information, or to compare and contrast concepts. At this
86 level, an instructional objective might have students compare and contrast public speaking and
87 conversation—as in the following question:
88 One of the major differences between public speaking and ordinary conversation is that
89 public speaking usually requires
90 a. adapting to feedback from listeners.
91 b. a more formal manner of delivery.
92 c. organizing ideas for effective communication.
93 d. tailoring the message to the audience.
