CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning
1. Q: What is behavior, generally and technically? [Level 1/K] Give three synonyms for
behavior. [Level 1/K]
A: Generally, behavior is anything a person does or says. Technically, behavior is
any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism. Synonyms include:
activity, action, performance, responding, response, and reaction.
2. Q: Distinguish between behavior and products of behavior. [Level 4/An] Give an
example of a behavior and a product of that behavior that are not in this chapter.
[Level 3/App]
A: Behavior is anything that a person says or does. Products of behavior are the
consequences produced by the behavior. For example, studying effectively and writing
the correct answers to questions on an exam are behaviors. Getting an “A” is a
product of those behaviors.
3. Q: Distinguish between overt and covert behaviors. [Level 4/An] Give two examples of
each that are not in this chapter. [Level 3/App]
A: Overt behaviors are behaviors that could be observed and recorded by an
individual other than the one performing the behavior. For example, walking and
talking are overt behaviors. Covert behaviors are private or internal activities that
cannot be readily observed by others. For example, thinking particular words to
oneself or feeling nervous (increased heart rate, etc.) would be private behaviors.
4. Q: What are cognitive behaviors? [Level 1/K] Give two examples. [Level 2/C]
A: Thinking in words (private self-talk) and imagining are sometimes referred to as
cognitive behaviors. For example, a hockey player may think before stepping on
the ice at a game, “I am going to play my best game yet” (private self-talk), or a
teacher may tell the class to close their eyes and picture a beach (imagining).
5. Q: Describe two dimensions of behavior. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each. [Level
2/C]
A: Any two dimensions can be described. Duration of a behavior is how long it lasts.
For example, measuring how long an individual can tread water in a swimming pool.
Frequency of a behavior is the number of instances that occur in a given period of
time. For example, a figure skater counting the number of times that she or he lands a
new jump in a practice session. The intensity or force of a behavior refers to the
physical effort or energy involved in emitting the behavior. For example, the force of a
person’s grip when shaking hands.
6. Q: From a behavioral point of view, what do terms like intelligence or creativity refer to?
[Level 1/K] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C]
A: Although their meanings vary from speaker to speaker, they always refer to ways
of behaving. An intelligent person, for example, solves problems quickly; a creative
person frequently emits behaviors that are novel or unusual and have desirable
effects.
7. Q: What are two positive reasons that summary terms for behavior patterns are used
frequently in psychology and in everyday life? [Level 2/C]
A: First, summary labels may be useful for quickly providing general information about
how an individual might perform. For example, a ten-year old child labeled as having a
severe developmental disability would not be able to read at the first grade level.
1
, Second, the labels may imply that a particular treatment program will be helpful. For
example, someone labeled as showing road rage might be encouraged to take an
anger management program.
8. Q: What are two disadvantages of using summary labels to refer to individuals or their
actions? [Level 1/K] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C]
A: (a) They may lead to pseudo explanations of behavior. For example, a child who
inverts words while reading might be labeled as dyslexic. If we ask why the child
inverts words, and we are given the answer, “Because he is dyslexic,” then the
summary label for behavior has been used as a pseudo explanation for the behavior.
(b) They can negatively affect the way a labeled individual might be treated. For
example, suppose a teenager consistently fails to help his parents perform chores
around the house. If the parents describe their son as “lazy”, that label may cause
them to focus more on the problem behavior than to praise positive behaviors. Any
appropriate examples are acceptable.
9. Q: What is a behavioral deficit? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not in this
chapter. [Level 3/App]
A: Too little behavior of a particular type. For example, a child might not pronounce
words clearly, nor interact with other children. Any other two appropriate examples are
acceptable.
10. Q: What is a behavioral excess? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not in this
chapter. [Level 3/App]
A: Too much behavior of a particular type. For example, a child frequently plays with
the dials on the television set, and throws food on the floor at mealtime. Any other two
appropriate examples are acceptable.
11. Q: Give three reasons why the authors describe behavior problems in terms of specific
behavioral deficits or excesses? [Level 2/C]
A: (a) To avoid the problems of using general labels to refer to individuals; (b) because it
is behavior that causes concern and behavior that must be treated to alleviate the
problems; and (c) specific procedures are available to overcome behavior problems.
12. Q: Define behavior modification. [Level 2/C]
A: Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles
and techniques to assess and improve individuals’ covert and overt behaviors in order
to enhance their daily functioning.
13. Q: What are stimuli? [Level 1/K] Describe two examples that are not in this chapter.
[Level 3/App]
A: Stimuli are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate
surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior. Any
appropriate examples are acceptable.
14. Q: State seven defining characteristics of behavior modification. [Level 1/K]
A: First, it places strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can
be measured in some way and accepting changes in the behavioral measure of the
problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped.
Second, its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s
environment to help that individual function more fully in society. Third, its methods
and rationales can be described precisely. Fourth, the techniques of behavior
modification are often applied by individuals in everyday life. Fifth, its techniques stem
from basic and applied research in the psychology of learning in general, and in the
principles of operant and Pavlovian conditioning in particular. Sixth, it emphasizes
scientific demonstration that a particular intervention was responsible for a particular
2
INTRODUCTION
Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning
1. Q: What is behavior, generally and technically? [Level 1/K] Give three synonyms for
behavior. [Level 1/K]
A: Generally, behavior is anything a person does or says. Technically, behavior is
any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism. Synonyms include:
activity, action, performance, responding, response, and reaction.
2. Q: Distinguish between behavior and products of behavior. [Level 4/An] Give an
example of a behavior and a product of that behavior that are not in this chapter.
[Level 3/App]
A: Behavior is anything that a person says or does. Products of behavior are the
consequences produced by the behavior. For example, studying effectively and writing
the correct answers to questions on an exam are behaviors. Getting an “A” is a
product of those behaviors.
3. Q: Distinguish between overt and covert behaviors. [Level 4/An] Give two examples of
each that are not in this chapter. [Level 3/App]
A: Overt behaviors are behaviors that could be observed and recorded by an
individual other than the one performing the behavior. For example, walking and
talking are overt behaviors. Covert behaviors are private or internal activities that
cannot be readily observed by others. For example, thinking particular words to
oneself or feeling nervous (increased heart rate, etc.) would be private behaviors.
4. Q: What are cognitive behaviors? [Level 1/K] Give two examples. [Level 2/C]
A: Thinking in words (private self-talk) and imagining are sometimes referred to as
cognitive behaviors. For example, a hockey player may think before stepping on
the ice at a game, “I am going to play my best game yet” (private self-talk), or a
teacher may tell the class to close their eyes and picture a beach (imagining).
5. Q: Describe two dimensions of behavior. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each. [Level
2/C]
A: Any two dimensions can be described. Duration of a behavior is how long it lasts.
For example, measuring how long an individual can tread water in a swimming pool.
Frequency of a behavior is the number of instances that occur in a given period of
time. For example, a figure skater counting the number of times that she or he lands a
new jump in a practice session. The intensity or force of a behavior refers to the
physical effort or energy involved in emitting the behavior. For example, the force of a
person’s grip when shaking hands.
6. Q: From a behavioral point of view, what do terms like intelligence or creativity refer to?
[Level 1/K] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C]
A: Although their meanings vary from speaker to speaker, they always refer to ways
of behaving. An intelligent person, for example, solves problems quickly; a creative
person frequently emits behaviors that are novel or unusual and have desirable
effects.
7. Q: What are two positive reasons that summary terms for behavior patterns are used
frequently in psychology and in everyday life? [Level 2/C]
A: First, summary labels may be useful for quickly providing general information about
how an individual might perform. For example, a ten-year old child labeled as having a
severe developmental disability would not be able to read at the first grade level.
1
, Second, the labels may imply that a particular treatment program will be helpful. For
example, someone labeled as showing road rage might be encouraged to take an
anger management program.
8. Q: What are two disadvantages of using summary labels to refer to individuals or their
actions? [Level 1/K] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C]
A: (a) They may lead to pseudo explanations of behavior. For example, a child who
inverts words while reading might be labeled as dyslexic. If we ask why the child
inverts words, and we are given the answer, “Because he is dyslexic,” then the
summary label for behavior has been used as a pseudo explanation for the behavior.
(b) They can negatively affect the way a labeled individual might be treated. For
example, suppose a teenager consistently fails to help his parents perform chores
around the house. If the parents describe their son as “lazy”, that label may cause
them to focus more on the problem behavior than to praise positive behaviors. Any
appropriate examples are acceptable.
9. Q: What is a behavioral deficit? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not in this
chapter. [Level 3/App]
A: Too little behavior of a particular type. For example, a child might not pronounce
words clearly, nor interact with other children. Any other two appropriate examples are
acceptable.
10. Q: What is a behavioral excess? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not in this
chapter. [Level 3/App]
A: Too much behavior of a particular type. For example, a child frequently plays with
the dials on the television set, and throws food on the floor at mealtime. Any other two
appropriate examples are acceptable.
11. Q: Give three reasons why the authors describe behavior problems in terms of specific
behavioral deficits or excesses? [Level 2/C]
A: (a) To avoid the problems of using general labels to refer to individuals; (b) because it
is behavior that causes concern and behavior that must be treated to alleviate the
problems; and (c) specific procedures are available to overcome behavior problems.
12. Q: Define behavior modification. [Level 2/C]
A: Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles
and techniques to assess and improve individuals’ covert and overt behaviors in order
to enhance their daily functioning.
13. Q: What are stimuli? [Level 1/K] Describe two examples that are not in this chapter.
[Level 3/App]
A: Stimuli are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate
surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior. Any
appropriate examples are acceptable.
14. Q: State seven defining characteristics of behavior modification. [Level 1/K]
A: First, it places strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can
be measured in some way and accepting changes in the behavioral measure of the
problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped.
Second, its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s
environment to help that individual function more fully in society. Third, its methods
and rationales can be described precisely. Fourth, the techniques of behavior
modification are often applied by individuals in everyday life. Fifth, its techniques stem
from basic and applied research in the psychology of learning in general, and in the
principles of operant and Pavlovian conditioning in particular. Sixth, it emphasizes
scientific demonstration that a particular intervention was responsible for a particular
2
