Summary Revision Notes

REFORM OF PARLIAMENT, c1780-1928

INTRODUCTION
 1780, Britain didn’t have written const – system of gov + its electoral system were governed by haphazard collection of laws
+ customs grown up since 15th + early yrs of reign of Henry VI
 Neither right to vote nor national distribution of seats was organized in rational way
 Over 150yrs, reforms carried out = intended to make electoral system reflect changing distribution of pop + new econ force
growing through industrialization
 By 1928, despite retention of monarchy + unelected HOL = Britain transformed into parliamentary democracy based on
universal suffrage
 1832, First Reform Act passed into law = Great Reform Act – many disappointed by provisions, which excluded bulk of w/c
men from franchise
 1867, Second Reform Act, enfranchised large no. of urban w/c
 1884, 3rd Act, extending vote to many agricultural labourers
 Despite changes = 40% adult males not received vote = franchise given only to men who had stake in country through
ownership/tenancy of property
 WW1 undermined ^ = by 1916, pol parties agreed it was indefensible that young men could be sent to fight + die at war but
not vote = Reform Act 1918, universal male suffrage, enfranchised women over 30
 1928 Act conceded universal suffrage for all men + women over 21
 1430, 2-member constituencies established, but in 1885 Redistribution Act, most of these swept away with creation of
single-member seats = beneficial to Cons Party through creation of suburban areas around large cities

HOW EFFECTIVE WERE PRESSURES FOR CHANGE TO THE FRANCHISE IN c1780-1928?

FRANCHISE c1780 + IT’S SIGNIFICANCE FOR REPRESENTATION OF PEOPLE

COUNTRY FRANCHISE
 In English + Welsh countries, right to vote established during reign of Henry VI 1430 giving vote to all freeholders of
property worth 40 shillings (£2) per year
 Simple qualification established uniform country franchise that remained unchanged for 400yrs
 Inflation + rising price of land increased no. of men qualified for franchise

BOROUGH FRANCHISE
 Eric Evans described pre-reform elections as ‘haphazard business’ = applied to voting rights in boroughs
 Right to vote not uniform, with wide variations form 1 seat to another
 Open boroughs = vote exercised by men who met various qualifications, like direct payment of local poor rates – Preston 1
of most open boroughs: vote given to all men who were in constituency at time of election
 Electorate in open boroughs run into thousands = 20 boroughs had large elections of > 1,000 men, Westminster had 11,000
= noted for their independence, not susceptible to influence
 Scot + lot boroughs = vote to males who paid local tax, or scot; while in potwalloper boroughs vote could only be exercised
by those who had possessed hearth where they could boil/wallop their pots
 Burgage boroughs = right to vote belonged to men who owned various properties + ownership of these votes protected
 Corporation boroughs = towns where voters were only members of town council = self-perpetuating cliques who filled
vacant seats on council by nomination, not election = corrupt + electors of towns were content to sell votes to highest
bidder
- Suffolk Town of Sudbury corrupt = 1761, town advertised its 2 seats for sale to highest bidder
- Sudbury so corrupt = disenfranchised 1844
 Treasury boroughs = parliamentary seats under control of gov departments, which were chief employers in town – ports
along S coast of England under influence of Admiralty + returned MPs who would give unswerving support to gov of day
 Pocket/rotten boroughs – property owned by 1 person who was able to nominate chosen candidate for election to parl
- Once areas of econ activity, but over time became depopulated, but retained parl representation
- Late Middle Ages = Dunwich, Suffolk, international port with trade to + from EUR – heavy storms + coastal erosion =
port claimed by sea, but tiny village remained + retained 2 MPs
- Old Sarum, Hampshire, thriving community in Middle Ages, but inhabitants moved to Salisbury – by 1780, it was heap
of stones visited by people curious to see 1 of most corrupted boroughs in country

SIZE OF ELECTORATE
 Impossible to assess size in 1780 because registration of electors not established until Reform Act 1832

, Survey 1780 estimated that in England + Wales, there were 214,000 electors out of pop of 8mil
 1831, right to vote in Scotland restricted = just 4,500 men in pop of 2.5mil qualified for vote

ELECTIONS + ‘INTERESTS’
 Until 1970s, no big pressure for parliamentary reform – 18 th opinion content with electoral system that wasn’t concerned
with system based on pop, but was able to represent national ‘interests’ like agri, trade + banking
 General elections now see contests in every parliamentary seat b/t no. of pol parties with different ideologies = not case in
18th
 1784 election = only 72 contests + in some constituencies there was no contested elections at all in 18 th
 Elections expensive: bribing – ‘treating’ included provision of lots of food + beer to voters + non-voters, accepted practice
 Frank O’Gorman concluded system worked well – argued important feature of system was that it was concerned with
virtual representation: MPs sat at Westminster not as representatives of voters, but to champion those interests that made
up econ + pol life of nation = this is why there were many seats in S of England, representing agri interests of day
 Men purchased boroughs, not to represent themselves, but to champion powerful interest like trade, brewing: 1820,
Alexander brothers purchased Old Sarum to further interests in E India Company + in merchant banking in Calcutta
 Mid 18th, industrialization of parts of Midlands, Lancashire + NE of country = gradual change in balance of econ, away from
agri S + E + towards densely populated N
 Industrialization changed social structure: emergence of new m/c of factory owners, managers + bankers + of larger urban
w/c
 Industrial interests not strongly represented in parls of late 18 th + pressure grew for new forces to be represented in parl

PRESSURES FOR CHANGE + REASONS FOR RESISTANCE

IMPACT OF FRENCH REVOLUTION
 1785, PM William Pitt introduced proposal to buy out 36 small boroughs + transfer their seats to counties + to London, but
he was defeated on issue + didn’t return to electoral reform
 Outbreak of revolution 1789 sparked interest in reform + demand for change
 Movement for reform divided on aims + methods:
- Some radical movements demanded extensive reform: Society for Constitutional Info, championed full universal
suffrage, founded 1789 by Major Cartwright + London Corresponding Society, founded 1792, promoted rights of skilled
workers
- Others supported less radical ideas
- Spread of radical + dem ideas = formation of Friends of the People 1792 by Whig politicians – hoped to control pace of
change by promoting modest amendments to electoral system: their objective was to obtain ‘> equal representation of
people in Westminster’
 Friends of People’s support of reform in HOC came at bad time for Whigs: French King Louis XVI executed + GBR at war with
France + Pitt’s gov > concerned with prosecution of war than domestic reform
 after ^ gov moved rapidly to suppress reform activity
 Habeas corpus (writ can be issued by any court requiring prison officials to provide legal proof that they have power to
detain prisoner) suspended in 1794
 Seditious Meetings Act 1795 led to decline in influence + activities of reform groups
 Leading members of London Corresponding Society were charged with sedition (open activities which are intended to
provoke violence/rebellion against established gov) + society was outlawed under Corresponding Societies Act 1799

POST-WAR UNREST, 1815-30
 Growing unemployment, econ distress + impact of industrialization = mixture of grievances
 Made worse by Corn Law 1815 = aimed at protecting econ interests of landed class through imposition of duty on imported
corn = working people feared price of bread would rise as result, manufacturers feared their workers would demand higher
wages to protect themselves
 Opposition to Corn Law, intensified by bad harvest 1816 – extra parliamentary protests organized under watchword
‘reform’
 In s-t popular protests failed due to opposition by gov + local authorities not afraid to use mil force against radical agitation
- 1816, reform meeting in Spa Fields London, developed into riot which was suppressed by city authorities
- 1819, volunteer yeomanry were responsible for deaths of 11 people in ‘Peterloo Massacre’
 In l-t, post-war events led to revival of interest in reform, which became > organized + effective in late 1820s
 By 1820, gov neutralized most radical activity + pressure for pol reform subsided = due to general revival in econ + decline of
distress, which confirmed belief of radical reformer William Cobbett: ‘I defy you to agitate any fellow with full stomach’
 Expert leadership of PM Lord Liverpool helped ^ pol calm, as he held together gov of reformers + cons

, ^ period of tranquility shattered after Liverpool’s death in 1827, when Duke of Wellington became PM in 1828
 Unity of Tory Party shattered as long pol supremacy came to end – end of their dominance came through internal divisions,
especially over religious issues
- Tory backbenchers were supporters of Anglican Church + its role in national life + opposed measures which might
weaken its supremacy
- 1828, Whig leader, Lord John Russel challenged Anglican Church with proposal to repeal Test + Corporation Acts
- ^ acts dated to reign of Charles II + prevented Protestant dissenters like Baptists + Congregationalists from holding gov
offices
- By 1820s, Acts not enforced + largely symbolic
- 1829, Catholic Relief Act had > serious implications for unity
- 1828, Vesey Fitzgerald appointed to Board of Trade + had to seek re-election in County Clare – assumed his election
would be formality, but leader of Catholic Association, Daniel O’Connell. in Ireland challenged existing anti-Catholic laws
by standing against Fitzgerald
- O’Connell defeated Fitzgerald, but was unable to take his seat as he wouldn’t swear oath of allegiance to Crown
- Wellington was long-standing opponent of Catholic relief, but he recognized that to deny O’Connell his seat could lead
to widespread + destabilizing unrest
- Wellington supported Catholic Relief Act 1829, which repealed anti-Catholic legislation
- Electoral power of Irish Catholics limited by another Act which raised Irish franchise qualification from 40 shillings to
£10
- Many Tories prepared to accept repeal of Test + Corporation Acts, but criticized Wellington for passing Catholic Relief
- > extreme Tories, ultras, gave their support to parliamentary reform, believed MPs in reformed parl have to take
account of widespread anti-Catholic feeling + didn’t support Catholic relief

REPRESENTATION OF PEOPLE ACT 1832

FALL OF WELLINGTON’S GOV 1830
 June 1830, George IV died = general election = Wellington returned to office, but his standing in Party damaged by return of
MPs who supported parliamentary reform + he wasn’t prepared to support any reform measure
 ^ made unwise speech in HOL on Nov 1831 + soon after gov was defeated on vote in HOC + Wellington resigned
 Whig leader, Earl Grey formed gov of Whigs + reforming groups – 1 st Whig gov since Ministry of All the Talents 1806-7

PRESSURE FOR FRANCHISE REFORM 1830
 Fall of Wellington = removed barrier to pol reform = Grey taking office led to people expecting he would address issue
 Extra-parliamentary pressure became intense + reform inevitable
 Conditional (l-t) + contingent (s-t) factors that promoted cause of reform:
 Conditional factors
1. French revolution had influence on GBR pol life
o Reformist ideals, promoting liberty + equality, became widespread + were supported by sections of society
2. Working people, especially in industrial towns, becoming > politicized
o Pamphlets + newspapers spread radical pol ideas to wide + receptive audience
o Most influential journal: William Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register
3. Early 19th saw growth of pol meetings
o Some of them focused on single issue, like opposition to Corn Laws
o Others, including Peterloo meeting of 1819, demanded comprehensive reform of parl
 Contingent factors
1. Tory Party in power since 1812 – but during late 1820s, unity began to fragment, due to religious issues + Wellington’s
unbending opposition to change
2. Country faced econ crises in late 1820s
o Harvests of 1828-30 were poor = higher food prices in town
3. Agri distress widespread in S + E counties
o Hardship experienced by farm workers was severe + in 1830 it sparked Swing Riots
4. Extra-parliamentary protests > organized
o 1830 Birmingham Pol Union by banker Thomas Attwood helped this
o Attwood intended to bring together into 1 single organization, the new industrial m/c + skilled w/c, united by
single aim of parliamentary reform
5. Events in France influenced reform activity in 1830s
o 1830 July revolution in Paris swept Bourbon king, Charles X, from throne + replaced him with Louis Philippe,
who was > acceptable to French m/c

, 6. 1830s, working people were prepared to take up issues of franchise reform
o Saw reform as means of ensuring better life for themselves
 Grey decided on comprehensive reform hoping to settle issue – in his instructions to committee, he wrote he wanted it to
be substantial enough to satisfy public opinion + to remove possibility of further innovations
 March 1831, Lord John Russell presented 1st reform bill to HOC = MPs stunned by radicalism of measure: he proposed to
retain historic county franchise, 40-shilling freeholder, but his proposals for borough franchises appeared revolutionary
 Under terms of bill, he intended to sweep away all existing voting qualifications in boroughs + replace them with uniform
franchise of £10 householders
 Sir Robert Inglis 1 of leading opponents of reform – Tory backbencher, believed his bitter oppositions would weaken
position of Church of England within national life
 Debate on proposals revealed divisions + on 22 March, bill passed 2 nd reading by 1 vote = narrowness meant bill was unlikely
to pass into law
 When Grey defeated on amendment = gov resigned + William IV dissolved parl, calling general election = Whigs won > 130
seats over Tories
 2nd reform bill introduced + passed easily
 Amendments to county franchise came with Chandos Claused, proposed by Marquis of Chandos, amendment would extend
electorate in countries beyond 40-shilling freeholders by enfranchising tenant farmers who paid £50 a yr for land
 Bill sent to HOL in Oct 1831, where peers not influenced by popular pressure rejected it by 42 votes = rioting in towns +
disturbances in Bristow were most serious, with hundreds young men in Queen Square rioting for 3 days, during which they
burned down Bishop of Bristol’s palace + attacked homes + businesses
 Winter 1831-32, Grey + colleagues tried to win peers to allow bill to pass: 3 rd reform bill passed through HOC March 1832 +
HOL passed 2nd reading by 9 votes but on 7 May HOL tried to wreck bill by voting to postpone discussions on redistribution
of seats
 Grey believed only way to secure 3rd reform bill’s passage through HOL was if William IV would create no. of pro-reform
peers – King refused his request = gov resigned
 Actions of peers led to Days of May = national protests organized in favour of bill + against Lords: Attwood + Birmingham
Political Union played prominent role in protests aimed at preventing return of Wellington as PM
 In end, Wellington unable to form to form gov, Grey returned to office, William IV agreed to creation of sufficient peers to
allow bill to pass = Lords gave way + passed 3 rd reform bill in June 1832

REFORM BILLS 1830-32
 1830
- Revolution in France
- Outbreak of Swing Riots
- Fall of Wellington’s gov
- Earl Grey appointed PM at head of Whig-dominated gov
 1831
- March: Russell introduces 1st reform bill
- April: Gov defeated in HOL; general election called
- June: Whigs return with substantial majority; 2nd reform bill introduced
- Oct: HOL rejects 2nd reform bill; rioting breaks out throughout country
 1832
- March: 3rd reform bill passed in HOC
- May: HOL attempt to wreck bill; gov resigns; Day of May; Whigs return to power
- June: 3rd reform bill becomes law
- Dec: 1st election under Reform Act: Whigs 441 seats, Tories 175

IMPACT OF REFORM ACT ON FRANCHISE
 Old 40-shilling franchise retained + Chands amendment gave vote to tenant farmers who rented property worth £50
 Swept away confusing no. of borough qualifications = standard borough franchise established, enfranchising male
householders with house worth £10
 In English countries, electorate increased by 55%, borough electorate rose 40%
 In Scotland, pre-reform electorate was 4,500 – rose to 64,000
 Uniform borough franchise had qualifications: electors had to have been resident in their home for at least 1yr, pay poor
rates – many men in industrial towns moved house often in search of work = didn’t qualify
 Uniform national franchise of £10 enfranchised men in towns where rents were high, but impact was < in N towns where
rents were lower