How do sociologists research society?
Sociological research process: choose a topic, define aim or hypothesis, operationalise concepts (turning a concept
into something measurable), choose research method, pilot study (trial run), refine research methods, select a sample,
gather data, analyse data and write up and publish research findings.
Research gives us different types of data: primary, secondary, quantitative data and qualitative data.
Quantitative data is in a numerical form and is useful for showing trends, patterns and relationships between factors.
Qualitative data is words, sounds or images, useful for looking at people’s feelings, values, attitudes and motivations.
Sociologists assess the quality of data by looking at validity (gives a true picture), reliability (repeated giving the same
result) and representativeness (typical cross section of a large group so generalisations can be drawn).
Methodological Triangulation: when a sociologist uses a combination of research methods and sources to obtain a
more rounded picture by studying the same things from more than one perspective.
Practical issues that may occur in research: Time, Money, subject matter (some topics will be better for certain
methods), safety, the people being studied (hostile/vulnerable), access and researchers personality and skills.
Ethical Issues: Sociologists must follow ethical guidelines when researching. They must avoid harm or deception and
must ensure they have informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, privacy and legality.
Theoretical Issues: There is two contrasting methodological approaches: positivism (believes society is based on social
facts and is a science, quantitative data to analyse trends, scientific methods such as experiments which are reliable
and representative) and interpretivism (social action theory, aim to understand social actions, reasons for behaviour,
reject view it can be studied as a science as humans have free will, qualitative data such as observations high in
validity).
Contemporary sociologists reject this debate as a false dichotomy as human behaviour is shaped by both structures
and actions so tend to use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Experimental Methods: (find cause and effect relationships)
Laboratory Experiments:
A lab experiment has control over the independent variable and the dependent variable with the use of an
experimental group and a control group.
Examples: Bandura’s Bo-bo doll experiment (1963)- he exposed experimental group of children to a violent adult role
model (IV) to see whether children then played aggressively and for how long (DV) and Milgram’s obedience
experiment (1964)- he attempted to measure whether adult exposure to an authority figure (IV) caused adults to be
obedient even in circumstances in which their actions could harm another human and the point in which they refused
to participate on the electronic shock meter (DV)
Studying teacher labelling: Harvey and Slatin (1976) - examined whether teachers had preconceived ideas about
pupils of different classes, sample of 96 teachers had to rate children on factors and lower class rated less favourably
(less ethical problems, practical and theological problems) and Charkin et al (1975)- sample of 48 students showed
they taught pupils in the high expectancy group using more encouraging body language. (Ethical, practical and
theoretical problems)
Practical: Hard to set up, small scale, easier to control variables.
Ethical: One may need to deceive participants, psychological/physical harm, informed consent
Theoretical: Positivists like lab experiments and interpretivists do not, not representative, are reliable but subject to
Hawthorne Effect as in artificial environment.
Positivist sociologists like them as they are high in reliability, interpretivists dislike them as they are artificial
Field Experiments:
They take place in a real life setting and are much more common that lab experiments as sociologists prefer these
Practical: Larger scale setting, may need a gatekeeper, money and time
Ethical: Doesn’t often physically harm participants, may deceive and often no informed consent
Theoretical: High validity as natural environment, less control over variables, the Hawthorne effect, Interpretivists
prefer this method.
Studying teacher labelling: Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968 study where they went to a US school and did an IQ test
then told the teachers 20% likely to spurt in the next year. The 20% were randomly selected but a positive expectation
had been planted in the teacher’s mind (IV). An IQ test 8 months later (DV) showed spurters gained 12 points
compared to others who gained 8 points. Another example is Jane Elliot’s blue eye/brown eye experiment.
Sociological research process: choose a topic, define aim or hypothesis, operationalise concepts (turning a concept
into something measurable), choose research method, pilot study (trial run), refine research methods, select a sample,
gather data, analyse data and write up and publish research findings.
Research gives us different types of data: primary, secondary, quantitative data and qualitative data.
Quantitative data is in a numerical form and is useful for showing trends, patterns and relationships between factors.
Qualitative data is words, sounds or images, useful for looking at people’s feelings, values, attitudes and motivations.
Sociologists assess the quality of data by looking at validity (gives a true picture), reliability (repeated giving the same
result) and representativeness (typical cross section of a large group so generalisations can be drawn).
Methodological Triangulation: when a sociologist uses a combination of research methods and sources to obtain a
more rounded picture by studying the same things from more than one perspective.
Practical issues that may occur in research: Time, Money, subject matter (some topics will be better for certain
methods), safety, the people being studied (hostile/vulnerable), access and researchers personality and skills.
Ethical Issues: Sociologists must follow ethical guidelines when researching. They must avoid harm or deception and
must ensure they have informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, privacy and legality.
Theoretical Issues: There is two contrasting methodological approaches: positivism (believes society is based on social
facts and is a science, quantitative data to analyse trends, scientific methods such as experiments which are reliable
and representative) and interpretivism (social action theory, aim to understand social actions, reasons for behaviour,
reject view it can be studied as a science as humans have free will, qualitative data such as observations high in
validity).
Contemporary sociologists reject this debate as a false dichotomy as human behaviour is shaped by both structures
and actions so tend to use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Experimental Methods: (find cause and effect relationships)
Laboratory Experiments:
A lab experiment has control over the independent variable and the dependent variable with the use of an
experimental group and a control group.
Examples: Bandura’s Bo-bo doll experiment (1963)- he exposed experimental group of children to a violent adult role
model (IV) to see whether children then played aggressively and for how long (DV) and Milgram’s obedience
experiment (1964)- he attempted to measure whether adult exposure to an authority figure (IV) caused adults to be
obedient even in circumstances in which their actions could harm another human and the point in which they refused
to participate on the electronic shock meter (DV)
Studying teacher labelling: Harvey and Slatin (1976) - examined whether teachers had preconceived ideas about
pupils of different classes, sample of 96 teachers had to rate children on factors and lower class rated less favourably
(less ethical problems, practical and theological problems) and Charkin et al (1975)- sample of 48 students showed
they taught pupils in the high expectancy group using more encouraging body language. (Ethical, practical and
theoretical problems)
Practical: Hard to set up, small scale, easier to control variables.
Ethical: One may need to deceive participants, psychological/physical harm, informed consent
Theoretical: Positivists like lab experiments and interpretivists do not, not representative, are reliable but subject to
Hawthorne Effect as in artificial environment.
Positivist sociologists like them as they are high in reliability, interpretivists dislike them as they are artificial
Field Experiments:
They take place in a real life setting and are much more common that lab experiments as sociologists prefer these
Practical: Larger scale setting, may need a gatekeeper, money and time
Ethical: Doesn’t often physically harm participants, may deceive and often no informed consent
Theoretical: High validity as natural environment, less control over variables, the Hawthorne effect, Interpretivists
prefer this method.
Studying teacher labelling: Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968 study where they went to a US school and did an IQ test
then told the teachers 20% likely to spurt in the next year. The 20% were randomly selected but a positive expectation
had been planted in the teacher’s mind (IV). An IQ test 8 months later (DV) showed spurters gained 12 points
compared to others who gained 8 points. Another example is Jane Elliot’s blue eye/brown eye experiment.
