Chapter 2
Diversity in Organizations
Diversity
The predominantly white, male managerial workforce of the past has given way to a gender-
balanced, multiethnic workforce. The differences between race and gender have decreased.
Surface-level diversity: differences in easily perceived characteristics such as gender, race,
ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but
that may activate certain stereotypes.
Deep-level diversity: differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become
progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another
better.
Discrimination and stereotyping
Discrimination: noting a difference between things: often we refer to unfair discrimination,
which means making judgements about individuals based on stereotypes regarding their
demographic group.
Stereotyping: judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to which that person
belongs.
Stereo threat: the degree to which we are concerned with being judged by or treated
negatively based on a certain stereotype.
Discrimination in the workplace can occur in many ways in the workplace and can lead to
increased negative consequences for employers (turnover, less productivity, conflict, risk-
taking behavior, reduced OCB).
Biographical characteristics
Biographical characteristics: personal characteristics – such as age, gender, race, and length
of tenure – that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These
characteristics are representative of surface-level diversity.
Age is likely to be an issue of increasing during the next decade (lawsuits against age
discrimination, workforce is aging, delay retirement, stereotypes of older workers).
Majority of studies, however, have shown that there is no virtual relationship between age and
job performance, though some studies showed that older workers know better to avoid errors.
Majority of studies have shown that older people are more satisfied with their job.
Many studies have shown that there are virtually no differences between job performance and
gender, but there are still differences in things like pay. Managers tend to also be gender
biased by hiring candidates. Women are less likely to get challenging positions and men are
more likely to be chosen for leadership.
Race: the heritage people use to identify themselves and ethnicity: additional set of cultural
characteristics that often overlaps with race. In the workplace, there exist racial differences,
though it depends on the industry.
,Workplace policies regarding individuals with physical or mental disabilities vary from
country to country. Some countries have laws that have resulted in greater acceptance and
accommodation of people with disabilities.
With hidden disabilities (such as bad-hearing), disclosure helps all – the individual, others,
organizations. It increases the job satisfaction of the employee and help others understand and
assist.
Other differentiating characteristics
Religious and nonreligious people question each other’s belief systems, and difference in
religious faiths often lead to conflict. Therefore, employers are prohibited by the law from
discriminating against employees based on religion in many places.
The full acceptance and accommodation of LGBT+ remains a work in process. Research
suggests that disclosing sexual orientation is good for reducing work-family conflict and
improving partner satisfaction, physical and mental well-being, and job satisfaction.
There are many countries (145 2019) that have laws providing some form of employment
protection for sexual orientation and gender identity. Furthermore, organizations are starting
to understand that there are ethical and financial reasons to be more inclusive.
Cultural identity: link with the culture of family ancestry that lasts a lifetime. Due to global
integration, today’s organizations do well to understand, respect, and adapt to the cultural
identities of their employees.
Ability
Ability: an individual\s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual abilities: capacity to do mental activities – thinking, reasoning, and problem
solving.
General mental ability (GMA): an overall factor of intelligence, as suggested by the positive
correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions.
The intelligence test most widely used in hiring decisions is the Wonderlic Ability Test. This
test measures both speed and power.
Intelligence does not make people more satisfied or happier with their jobs, research even
suggests that those people might be victimized or bullied.
Physical abilities: the capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and
similar characteristics. Organizations are aware that an optimally productive workforce
includes all types of people.
Implementing diversity management strategies
Diversity management: the process and programs by which managers make everyone more
aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others.
Attracting and selecting diverse employees
Diversity in groups (can hurt or facilitate performance) Fault lines: the perceived
divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences,
such as sex, race, age, work experience, language, education.
Diversity programs: organizations use these in recruitment, selection policies,
training and development practices.
, Chapter 9
Foundations of Group Behavior
Defining and classifying groups
Group: two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to
achieve certain objectives.
Formal group: designated work group defined by an organization’s structure.
Informal group: group that is not defined by an organization’s structure: such a group appears
in response to other needs, such as social clubs or interest groups.
Social identity theory: a perspective that considers when and why individuals consider
themselves members of groups.
Within our organizations and work groups, we can develop many identities through (1)
relational identification, when we connect with others because of our roles, and (2) collective
identification, when we connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups.
Ingroup: members of a group we belong to. We tend to play favorites with our ingroup.
Outgroup: the inverse of an ingroup; an outgroup can mean anyone outside the group, but
more usually it is an identified other group. We tend to see anyone outside of our group as ‘all
the same’ and can derogate them or threat them as if they have little worth.
Stages of group development
Punctuated equilibrium model: set of phases that temporary groups go through that involve
transitions between inertia and activity.
The first meeting sets the group’s direction.
The first phase of group activity is one of inertia and thus makes slower progress.
A transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time.
This transition initiates major changes.
A second phase of inertia follows the transition.
The group’s last meeting
Group property 1: Roles
Role: a function assumed by someone occupying a given position in a group.
Role perception: an individual’s view of how they are supposed to act in a given situation.
Role expectation: how others believe a person should act in a given situation.
Phycological contract: an unwritten agreement between employees and employers that
established natural expectations.
Role conflict: a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.
Interrole conflict: a situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separate
groups are in opposition.
Group property 2: Norms
Norms: acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s
members.
Emotions of group members can amplify the power of norms. For example, coworkers can
react negatively to you calling sick for work.
Conformity: the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group.
Research has shown that in a group, we don’t conform easily, but when we do, it is most
likely with our reference groups. Reference groups: important groups to which individuals
Diversity in Organizations
Diversity
The predominantly white, male managerial workforce of the past has given way to a gender-
balanced, multiethnic workforce. The differences between race and gender have decreased.
Surface-level diversity: differences in easily perceived characteristics such as gender, race,
ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but
that may activate certain stereotypes.
Deep-level diversity: differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become
progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another
better.
Discrimination and stereotyping
Discrimination: noting a difference between things: often we refer to unfair discrimination,
which means making judgements about individuals based on stereotypes regarding their
demographic group.
Stereotyping: judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to which that person
belongs.
Stereo threat: the degree to which we are concerned with being judged by or treated
negatively based on a certain stereotype.
Discrimination in the workplace can occur in many ways in the workplace and can lead to
increased negative consequences for employers (turnover, less productivity, conflict, risk-
taking behavior, reduced OCB).
Biographical characteristics
Biographical characteristics: personal characteristics – such as age, gender, race, and length
of tenure – that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These
characteristics are representative of surface-level diversity.
Age is likely to be an issue of increasing during the next decade (lawsuits against age
discrimination, workforce is aging, delay retirement, stereotypes of older workers).
Majority of studies, however, have shown that there is no virtual relationship between age and
job performance, though some studies showed that older workers know better to avoid errors.
Majority of studies have shown that older people are more satisfied with their job.
Many studies have shown that there are virtually no differences between job performance and
gender, but there are still differences in things like pay. Managers tend to also be gender
biased by hiring candidates. Women are less likely to get challenging positions and men are
more likely to be chosen for leadership.
Race: the heritage people use to identify themselves and ethnicity: additional set of cultural
characteristics that often overlaps with race. In the workplace, there exist racial differences,
though it depends on the industry.
,Workplace policies regarding individuals with physical or mental disabilities vary from
country to country. Some countries have laws that have resulted in greater acceptance and
accommodation of people with disabilities.
With hidden disabilities (such as bad-hearing), disclosure helps all – the individual, others,
organizations. It increases the job satisfaction of the employee and help others understand and
assist.
Other differentiating characteristics
Religious and nonreligious people question each other’s belief systems, and difference in
religious faiths often lead to conflict. Therefore, employers are prohibited by the law from
discriminating against employees based on religion in many places.
The full acceptance and accommodation of LGBT+ remains a work in process. Research
suggests that disclosing sexual orientation is good for reducing work-family conflict and
improving partner satisfaction, physical and mental well-being, and job satisfaction.
There are many countries (145 2019) that have laws providing some form of employment
protection for sexual orientation and gender identity. Furthermore, organizations are starting
to understand that there are ethical and financial reasons to be more inclusive.
Cultural identity: link with the culture of family ancestry that lasts a lifetime. Due to global
integration, today’s organizations do well to understand, respect, and adapt to the cultural
identities of their employees.
Ability
Ability: an individual\s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual abilities: capacity to do mental activities – thinking, reasoning, and problem
solving.
General mental ability (GMA): an overall factor of intelligence, as suggested by the positive
correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions.
The intelligence test most widely used in hiring decisions is the Wonderlic Ability Test. This
test measures both speed and power.
Intelligence does not make people more satisfied or happier with their jobs, research even
suggests that those people might be victimized or bullied.
Physical abilities: the capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and
similar characteristics. Organizations are aware that an optimally productive workforce
includes all types of people.
Implementing diversity management strategies
Diversity management: the process and programs by which managers make everyone more
aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others.
Attracting and selecting diverse employees
Diversity in groups (can hurt or facilitate performance) Fault lines: the perceived
divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences,
such as sex, race, age, work experience, language, education.
Diversity programs: organizations use these in recruitment, selection policies,
training and development practices.
, Chapter 9
Foundations of Group Behavior
Defining and classifying groups
Group: two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to
achieve certain objectives.
Formal group: designated work group defined by an organization’s structure.
Informal group: group that is not defined by an organization’s structure: such a group appears
in response to other needs, such as social clubs or interest groups.
Social identity theory: a perspective that considers when and why individuals consider
themselves members of groups.
Within our organizations and work groups, we can develop many identities through (1)
relational identification, when we connect with others because of our roles, and (2) collective
identification, when we connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups.
Ingroup: members of a group we belong to. We tend to play favorites with our ingroup.
Outgroup: the inverse of an ingroup; an outgroup can mean anyone outside the group, but
more usually it is an identified other group. We tend to see anyone outside of our group as ‘all
the same’ and can derogate them or threat them as if they have little worth.
Stages of group development
Punctuated equilibrium model: set of phases that temporary groups go through that involve
transitions between inertia and activity.
The first meeting sets the group’s direction.
The first phase of group activity is one of inertia and thus makes slower progress.
A transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time.
This transition initiates major changes.
A second phase of inertia follows the transition.
The group’s last meeting
Group property 1: Roles
Role: a function assumed by someone occupying a given position in a group.
Role perception: an individual’s view of how they are supposed to act in a given situation.
Role expectation: how others believe a person should act in a given situation.
Phycological contract: an unwritten agreement between employees and employers that
established natural expectations.
Role conflict: a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.
Interrole conflict: a situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separate
groups are in opposition.
Group property 2: Norms
Norms: acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s
members.
Emotions of group members can amplify the power of norms. For example, coworkers can
react negatively to you calling sick for work.
Conformity: the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group.
Research has shown that in a group, we don’t conform easily, but when we do, it is most
likely with our reference groups. Reference groups: important groups to which individuals
