MICROBIOLO BIOS242 MICRO FINAL EXAM (GRADED A) QUESTIONS and ANSWERS with explanations | 100% VERIFIED.

MICROBIOLO BIOS242 MICRO FINAL EXAM Chapter 1: 1. Compare the scientists’ beliefs and experiments for spontaneous generation. Aristotle: - proposed spontaneous generation: living things can ar ise from nonliving matter. Redi: - When decaying meat was kept isolate from flies, maggots never developed. Meat exposed to flies was soon infested. Scientist’s began to doubt Aristotle’s theory. Needham: - Scientists didn’t believe that animals could arise spontaneously, but that microbes could. Neeham’s experiments with beef gravy and infusions of plant material reinforced this idea. Spallanzi: - Results contracted Needham’s findings. Concluded that: Needham failed to heat vials sufficiently to kill all microbes or had not sealed vials tightly enough. Microorganisms exist in air and can contaminate experiments. Spontaneous generation of microorganisms does not occur. The debate continued until the experiments conducted by Louis Pasteur. Pasteur: - Performed investigations of spontaneous generation. When the “swan-necked” flasks remained upright, no microbial growth appeared. When the flask was tilted, dust from the bend in the neck seeped back into the flask and made the infusion cloudy with microbes within a day. 2. What were the scientists/physicians Leeuwenhoek, Snow, and Lister known for? Leeuwenhoek: - bacteria, protozoa, mycology (fungi), parasitology (protozoa and animals), phycology (algae). Snow: epidemiology Lister: antiseptic medical techniques 3. What are the major groups of microorganisms, and are they prokaryotic, eukaryotic, or acellular? Bacteria and Archaea: prokaryotic (lack nuclei) Fungi: eukaryotic (have membrane-bound nucleus) Protozoa: single-celled eukaryotes Algae: unicellular or multicellular 4. Describe the steps in the scientific method. Scientific method: - Observation leads to question - Question generates hypothesis - Hypothesis is tested through experiments - Results prove or disprove hypothesis 5. Which scientist had steps to identify the etiological agent, and what are those steps? Robert Koch: studied disease causation (etiology) Koch’s postulates: - Suspected causative agent must be found in every case of the disease and be absent from healthy hosts. - Agent must be isolated and grown outside the host. - When agent is introduced into a healthy, susceptible host, the host must get the disease. - Same agent must be found in the diseased experimental host. Chapter 11 1. What are the main shapes of prokaryotes and arrangements? Describe a coccobacillus. Main shapes: - Bacillus: rod shaped - Coccus: spherical/round - Coccobacillus: intermediate between cocci and bacilli. Very short rods that can be mistaken for cocci - Vibrio: curved rod shape - Spirillum: curved/spiral - Spirochete: corkscrew - Pleomorphic: alter shape to environment - Star Arrangements: results from two aspects of division during binary fission. - Planes in which cells divide. - Separation of daughter cells. 2. What are the differences between bacteria and archaea? Where may archaea live? Bacteria: cells walls contain peptidoglycan; some lack cell walls. Archaea: cell walls are composed of polymers other than peptidoglycan. - Found everywhere there is sufficient moisture; some have been isolated from extreme environments. 3. Why do bacteria form endospores, and which ones are medically relevant? - Produced by Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus and Clostridium - Primary function is to ensure the survival of the bacteria through periods of environmental stress. - Can create toxins that cause tetanus, anthrax, and gangrene. - E. Coli cannot produce toxins. 4. What are some medically relevant bacteria and the disease they cause? Clostridia: produce toxins that cause diseases in humans. Bacillus thuringiensis: toxin is used by farmers and gardeners as an insecticide. Bacillus anthracis: causes anthrax. Listeria: contaminates milk and meat products. Streptococcus and Enterococcus: cause numerous diseases, produces toxins and enzymes that contribute to disease. Chlamydia: STD – most common in the US Borrelia: lyme disease 5. How does binary fission differ from endospore formation? Binary fission: asexual reproduction. Most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. Occurs in some single-celled eukaryotes. Chapter 3 1. How do prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in terms of cellular structure? What is the size difference? Prokaryotes: - Contains no nucleus - has DNA in nucleoid. - 70S ribosomes: 50S and 30S. - Haploid. - Single celled. Eukaryotes: - Contains nucleus. - Internal structures and organelles. - Single celled or multicellular. - 80S ribosomes: 60S and 40S 2. What are the differences in the cellular envelope of a gram + and gram – bacterium? What is the periplasmic space? Gram-positive: thick layer of peptidoglycan, purple when stained, susceptible to antibiotics Gram-negative: thin layer of peptidoglycan, bilayer membrane outside and contain phospholipids, proteins, and lipopolysaccharide (lipid A), pink when stained, resistant to antibiotics 3. What are the effects on a cell when they are placed in a hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic solution? Hypertonic: shrink-crenation Hypotonic: burst Isotonic: stay the same 4. How is the cell membrane selectively permeable? How does this layer differ from the cell wall in bacteria? - The cell wall controls passage of substances into and out of the cell (active and passive transport). It is made up of proteins and phospholipids that are hydrophilic and hydrophobic. - In bacteria, the cell wall provides structure, shape, and protection from osmotic forces. It is composed out of peptidoglycan and have two types: gram-positive and gram-negative. 5. Describe the origin, structure, and function of mitochondria. - Makes ATP, 2 membranes composed of a phospholipid bilayer, and interior matrix contains 70S ribosomes and circular molecule of DNA. Chapter 4 1. Compare and contrast the staining protocols for the gram stain, capsule stain, spore stain, and the acid fast. Gram stain: distinguishes bacteria based on cell wall (crystal-violet) (safranin). - Gram-positive: purple - peptidoglycan is thicker, allowing color to seep in, susceptible to antibiotics - Gram-negative: pink - colorless in 3rd stage because peptidoglycan layer is thinner,pariplasmic membrane, resistant to antibiotics Capsule stain: uses a negative stain, stains the background and organism remains the same (looks like a halo). No heat, water, or mordant. Spore stain: uses heat to stain, stains bacterial endospores-green and red Christmas tree safranin, malachite (green). Acid-fast: distinguishes bacteria based on cell wall properties, uses heat to stain, and used to identify mycobacterium (Carbolfushion and methylene blue) acid fast stain red, and non-acid fast stain blue. 2. What are the stains that the gram + and gram – bacteria retain and why? - Due to the difference in the makeup of the cell wall, gram-positive and negative stain differently. Gram-negative stains pink because it stays on the top of the cell membrane, whereas gram-positive stains purple because the dye is stained into and absorbed by the cell wall. 3. Compare and contrast microscopes that would be used to view bacteria versus viruses and why. - Electron microscopes would be the only type to view viruses but all types could view bacteria. Electron microscopes are used for viruses because they have a greater resolving power and magnification (10,000-100,000X). Must measure viruses in nanometers. - Electron microscopes use magnetic lenses, versus light microscopes use glass. 4. What are the domains, how were they categorized, and whom was responsible? - Eukaryote - Bacteria - Archaea Responsible: Carl Woese Categorized: compared nucleotide sequences of rRNA subunits 5. What is the difference between positive and negative dyes, and name some examples of those dyes. Positive stains: basic dyes and positive charge. - Dye binds to specimen-crystal violet, hematoxylin, and safranin. Negative stains: acidic dyes and negative charge. - Dye does not bind to the specimen, but rather around the specimen. Acidic dyes (eosin) stain positive structures such as collagen. Chapter 6 1. Describe the different chemical and energy needs and classifications. Describe other condition requirements that organisms such as for halophiles and barophiles. Chemical: - Autotrophs: use inorganic sources. - Heterotrophs: use organic sources. Energy: - Chemotrophs: get energy from redox reactions involving organic or inorganic chemicals. - Phototrophs: use light energy. 2. What are the different growth stages for bacteria and describe the differences. When is the microorganism most susceptible to antibiotics? Lag phase: cells adjust to new environment (minutes-hours) Log (exponential) phase: population is actively growing. Phase of rapid chromosome replication, growth, and reproduction. Stationary phase: new organisms are being produced at the same rate, older ones are dying. Death (decline) phase: organisms are dying more quickly than they are being replaced. 3. What are the different temperature needs of microorganisms, and how does temperature affect growth? - If temperature is too low, membrane becomes rigid and fragile. If too high, the membrane becomes too fluid. Four temperature categories: 1. Psychotrophiles: snowfields 2. Mesophiles: pathogens-human body temperature: 37C. 3. Thermophiles: composite piles, hot spring. 4. Hyperthermophiles: very hot. 4. What are the different types of microbiological media, composition, and uses? Six types of general culture media: 1. Defined: medium in which the exact chemical composition is known. 2. Complex: exact chemical composition is unknown. 3. Selective: contain substances that either factor the growth of particular microorganisms or inhibit the growth of unwanted ones. 4. Differential: either the presence of visible changes in the medium or differences in appearance of colonies. 5. Anaerobic: must be free of oxygen. 6. Transport: used in hospital to protect people from contamination. 5. What is agar derived from and how much is in liquid, semi-solid, and solid media? Agar is derived from seaweed (red algae) - Liquid: small amount (broth) - Semi-solid: middle - Solid: most (petri plate) Chapter 5 1. What is the difference between catabolic, anabolic, and amphibolic reactions? Catabolic: breakdown of larger molecules into smaller products. - Exergonic: release energy. Anabolic: large molecules made from smaller products. - Endergonic: take energy in. Amphibolic: the use of both pathways. Both catabolic and anabolic pathways. 2. What are the six categories of enzymes and their functions? Six categories of enzymes: 1. Hydrolases: C-hydrolysis 2. Isomerases: neither C or A-stays the same 3. Ligases: A-forming together. 4. Lyases: C-splitting 5. Oxidoreductases: transfer of e- or H 6. Transferases: A-transfer from one to another 3. When would fermentation occur and the products that result? - Fermentation: occurs when O2 is not present. Makes fewer ATP and it is used in food production and identification. 4. What are the products of glycolysis and where in the cell does it occur? - Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP, 2 precursors of pyruvic acid, and 2 NADH. 5. How does the electron transport chain use hydrogen and how many ATP are produced? - 32-34 ATP are produced in the ETC. Energy from electrons is used to pump protons (H+) across the membrane, establishing a proton gradient. Chapter 12 1. Describe the differences and similarities between fungi, protozoa, algae. Fungi: haploid and diploid, S and A, eukaryote. Cell wall: chitin. - Molds: hypae, myecelium. - Yeast: single cell Protozoa: haploid and diploid, S and A, unicellular, no cell wall, eukaryotic and in moist environments. Algae: haploid and diploid, S and A, eukaryotic, aquatic, unicellular. Cell wall: cellulose, spores have 2 flagella, tubular christae. 2. What are the phases of mitosis, and what does each look like under the microscope (describe). Interphase: DNA replicates equally between 2 nuclei Prophase: nuclear envelope Metaphase: sister chromosomes line up in cell Anaphase: sister chromosome split or pull apart Telophase: where cytoplasm is going to divide 3. What are the structural differences between a mold and a yeast? - Molds: individual filaments called hyphae, together hyphae for a woven mass called mycelium. - Yeasts: single cell 4. What are some examples of vectors? - Fleas, lice, flies, mosquitos, kissing bug-arthropod V. Ticks-arachnid V 5. What is the difference between a biological and mechanical vector? Mechanical vectors: doesn’t need any life cycle and transfer to another host Biological vectors: microbes have some type of life cycle and transfers to another host. Chapter 13 1. What is the difference in the extracellular state and intracellular state of a virus? - Extracellular state: called a virion. It’s protein coat surrounds nucleic acid. The outermost layer provides protection and recognition sites for host cells. - Intracellular state: “capsid removed” the viruses exist as a nucleic acid. 2. Describe the stages of viral replication. Stage 1: Attachment – virus attaches to host cell. Stage 2: Entry – enter host cell. Stage 3: Synthesis – replication of envelope, proteins, and nucleic acid. Stage 4: Assembly – viruses form other multiple mature viruses; transduction. Stage 5: Release – host cell lysaes, releasing multiple viruses. 3. What are the differences between a virus and a viroid? Between prions? - Virus: minuscule, acellular, infectious agents having either DNA or RNA - Viroid: extremely small circular pieces or RNA that are infectious and pathogenic in plants. They are similar to RNA viruses but lack capsid. - Prions: no nucleic acid, protein only. Destroyed by incineration or autoclave. 4. Describe the basic structure of a virus. - Viruses contain no cytoplasmic membrane, cytosol, or organelles. They contain a capsid, nucleic acid, glycoproteins, and some contain a membranous envelope. 5. What does latency mean in a viral infection, and what is an example of a latent virus? Latency: when a virus remains dormant in the host cell. - Ex: herpes – remains in your system but does not have to produce any symptoms. Chapter 9 1. What are the targets of antimicrobial agents? Cell wall: osmosis causes cell wall to burst. Cytoplasmic membrane: cellular content leaks out. Proteins and nucleic acid: denatures proteins with high heat and chemicals metabolism. 2. What is a difference between antiseptics and disinfectants and give examples of each. Antiseptic: used on living tissue. Ex: iodine or alcohol. Disinfectants: used on nonliving tissue. Ex: soap. 3. Name and describe some heat methods for controlling microorganisms. Moist heat: denatures proteins and destroys the cytoplasmic membrane. Ex: boiling, autoclave, pasteurization. Dry heat: denatures proteins and oxidize metabolic and structural chemicals – requires very high temperatures. 4. What are examples of ionizing and nonionizing radiation, and what might these methods for controlling growth be used for? Ionizing radiation: electron beams, X-rays, gamma rays. Ex: killing microbes off fruits and vegetables. Nonionizing radiation: UV is an example. Disinfecting air and surfaces of objects are other examples. 5. Besides heat and radiation, what are other physical methods for controlling microbial growth? - Refrigeration: halts pathogens - Freezing: (slow freeze is best) - Osmotic pressure: salt and sugar inhibits growth - Drying and freeze drying - Desiccation: drying - Lyophilization: freeze drying. Chapter 10 1. What does selective toxicity mean, and why is this important? Selective toxicity: antimicrobial drugs are chemicals that are intended to have this. They kill microbial cells but not the hosts cells. - Ex: antibiotic. 2. What would be the difference between a broad-spectrum antibiotic and a narrow spectrum? Broad spectrum: effective against many organisms. Narrow spectrum: effective against few organisms. 3. What are the cellular targets for antibiotics, and what may be a target for antivirals? Antibiotics: cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, and disruption of cytoplasmic membrane, DNA synthesis – against prokaryotes. Antiviruses: inhibits the pathogen to attach or enter into the host cell. 4. Name some mechanisms by which organisms gain resistance, and give an example of an enzyme that would make bacteria resistant to an antibiotic? - Produce enzymes that destroy or deactivates drugs, bacteria in biofilms can resist antimicrobials. Ex: Mycobacterium tuberculosis. They’re resistant because they produce a MfpA protein that prevents the binding of drugs. 5. Describe the diffusion susceptibility test and what it means. Diffusion susceptibility (Kirby-Bauer): involves a petri plate and a spread of pathogen. After incubation, the test may or may not produce a “zone of inhibition” which is a clear area where bacteria doesn’t grow. In the areas of the zone, it shows that the antimicrobial drugs were effective towards that pathogen and bacteria didn’t grow. 6. Why are tetracyclines dangerous? - Tetracyclines can be dangerous because it can cause side effects such as teeth discoloration, more severely the drug can be toxic to kidneys, liver, or nerves. Considerations are needed when prescribing the drug to pregnant women. Chapter 15 1. Explain the inflammatory response. Inflammatory response: occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause. The damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling. 2. What are the steps in phagocytosis? - Chemotaxis - Adherence - Ingestion - Maturation - Killing - Elimination 3. What cells are considered granulocytes, and what is their function? Basophils: stain blue with basic dye; methylene blue Eosinophils: stain red/orange with acidic dye eosin Neutrophils: stain lilac with mix of acidic and basic dyes 4. What are the various defenses of the skin? Epidermis: multiple layers of tightly packed cells. - Few pathogens can penetrate these layers. - Shedding of dead skin cells removes microorganisms. - Epidermal dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens Dermis: collagen fibers help skin resist abrasions that could introduce microorganisms. Skin has chemicals that defend against pathogens. - Antimicrobial peptides (defensins) secreted by dermal cells. - Perspiration secreted by sweat glands • Salt inhibits growth of pathogens • Antimicrobial peptides called dermcidins, act against many bacteria and fungi • Lysozyme destroys cells wall of bacteria – found in tears as well. - Sebum secreted by sebaceous (oil) glands • Helps keeps skin pliable and less likely to break or tear. • Lowers skin pH to a level inhibitory to many bacteria. 5. List and describe cells may be phagocytic. - Neutrophils and eosinophils also phagocytize pathogens and are capable of diapedesis: crossing into tissue. Chapter 16 1. Describe the immune response possible for an extracellular pathogen (not intracellular). Describe the response to antigens and give examples of antigens. Extracellular enzymes: - Secreted by the pathogen. - Dissolve structural chemicals in the body. - Help pathogen maintain infection, invade, and avoid body defenses. - Important to virulence of the pathogen. • Mutant species that do not secrete the enzymes are often avirulent. 2. What are the five classes of antibody and a description of each. IgM: first antibody produces, class switching may take place after initial reaction such as to IgG, pentamer (5) IgG: most common and longest-lasting antibody, most prevalent in the blood and crosses the placenta. IgA: associated with body secretions, dimer (2). IgE: involved in response to parasitic infections and allergies. IgD: exact function is not known. 3. Which antibody is involved in the primary response, and then what type of antibody may it switch to? - Memory T cells are the antibodies involved in the primary response. - Some activated T cells become memory T cells 4. What is the difference between passive and active immunity and examples? Passive immunity: immune response which involves antibodies obtained from outside the body. - Ex: antibodies a mother passes to her infant through her breast milk. Active immunity: involves the bodies direct response to an unknown pathogen. This response is the production of antibodies specific to the antigen of a particular pathogen. - Ex: Tuberculosis vaccine, flu vaccine. 5. What is the structure of an antibody? - Antibodies are immunoglobulins similar to BCRs. - Secreted by activated B cells called plasma cells. - Have antigen-binding sites and antigen specificity identical to the BCR of the activated B cell. 7. Where do T and B cell differentiate? B lymphocytes (B cells): mature in the bone marrow. T lymphocytes (T cells): mature in the thymus. Chapter 14 1. What are the three symbiotic relationships and describe. Mutualism: organism 1 – benefits, organism 2 – benefits. - Ex.) bacteria in human colon. Commensalism: organism 1 – benefits, organism 2 – neither benefits nor is harmed. - Ex.) Staphylococcus epidermidis on skin. Parasitism: organism 1 – benefits, organism 2 – is harmed. - Ex.) Tuberculosis bacteria in human lung. 2. List and describe the three types of reservoirs of infection. Animal reservoir: - Zoonoses: diseases that natural spread from animal host to humans. - Humans are usually dead-end host to zoonotic pathogens, and are difficult to eradicate. Human carriers: - Asymptomatic infected individuals can be infective to others – such as HIV. - Some individuals eventually develop illness whereas others never get sick. - Healthy carriers may have defensive systems that protect them. Nonliving reservoirs: soil, water, and food can be reservoirs of infection. - Presence of microorganisms is often due to contamination by feces or urine. 3. List and describe the three modes of transmission. Contact Transmission: - Direct contact transmission. • Usually involves body contact between hosts. • Transmission within a single individual can also occur - Indirect contact transmission. • Pathogens are spread from host to host by fomites. - Droplet transmission. • Spread of pathogens in droplets of mucus. Vehicle Transmission: - Airborne transmission. • When pathogens travel more than 1 meter via an aerosol. • Aerosols can occur from various activities: sneezing, coughing, AC systems, sweeping. - Waterborne transmission. • Important in the spread of many gastrointestinal diseases. • Fecal-oral infection. - Foodborne transmission. • Spread of pathogens in and on foods. • Inadequately processed, cooked, or refrigerated foods. • Foods may become contaminated with feces-washing, cooking. - Bodily fluid transmission. • Bodily fluids such as blood, urine, saliva can carry pathogens. Vector Transmission: - Vectors: animals that transmit disease among hosts. - Biological vectors-malaria and Anopheles mosquitos, ticks and lime disease. • Transmit pathogens and serve as host for some stage of the pathogen’s life cycle. • Biting arthropods transmit many diseases to humans. - Mechanical vectors: houseflies, cockroaches. • Passively transmit pathogens present their body to new hosts. 4. What is the difference between incidence and prevalence? Incidence: number of new cases of a disease in a given area during a given period of time. Prevalence: number of total cases of a disease in a given area during a given period of time-may normally be found in an area. 5. From chapter 14, describe and list the mechanical and biological vectors. Biological vectors: malaria and Anophele. Mosquitos, ticks, and lime disease. - Transmit pathogens and serve as host for some stage of the pathogen’s life cycle. - Biting arthropods transmit many diseases to humans. Mechanical vectors: houseflies, cockroaches - Passively transmit pathogens present on their body to new hosts. 6. What is etiology and how can normal flora be pathogenic? Etiology: study of the cause of disease. - Normal flora can be pathogenic if the host resistance mechanisms fail – either through some other infection process or through immunodeficiency. Chapter 19 1. List and describe some of the skin infections that may be caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Folliculitis: - Infection of the hair follicle. - Often called a pimple. - Called a sty when it occurs at the eyelid base. - Spread of infection into surrounding tissues can produce furuncles (boil) - Carbuncles (multiple boils) occur when multiple furuncles grow together. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome: - Skin becomes red and wrinkled and forms blisters. - Outer epidermis peel off in sheets. - Occurs primarily in infants. - Transmitted by person-to-person spread of bacteria. Impetigo: - Red patches form on the face and limbs. - Bacteria invade where the skin is compromised. - Acute glomerulonephritis can result if the infection spreads to the kidneys. - Occurs in most children. - Transmitted by person-to-person contact or via fomites. 2. List and describe virulence factors of Pseudomonas. Pseudomonas Infection: blood infection causes fever, chills, and shock. - Numerous virulence factors: • Fimbriae, adhesins, capsule, toxins, enzymes. • Rarely causes disease despite virulence factors. 3. What is the relationship of chicken pox and shingles? Chicken Pox: - Highly contagious infectious disease. - Characterized by lesions on the back and trunk that spread across body. - Virus becomes latent within sensory nerves. Shingles: - Occurs following reactivation of the virus. - Lesions are localized to skin along an infected nerve. - Pain may last after lesions have healed. 4. Describe the pathogenesis and epidemiology of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever: - Pathogenesis • R. rickettsii does not secrete any toxins. • Disease occurs from damage to blood vessels. - Epidemiology • Transmitted via bite of infected tick. 5. Describe the pathogenesis for ringworm. Ringworm: - Pathogenesis • Dermatophytes colonize skin, nails, and hair Chapter 20 1. Describe and differentiate between the different types of bacterial meningitis. Bacterial Meningitis: - Neisseria meningitides • Gram-negative cocci • Known as meningococcus • Capsule protects bacteria from phagocytic lysis - Streptococcus pneumoniae • Gram-positive coccus • Leading cause of meningitis in adults • Capsule protects bacteria from digestion by phagocytes - Haemophilus influenza • Pleomorphic bacillus • Obligate parasite of humans and some animals • Presence of capsule resists phagocytosis - Listeria monocytogenes • Gram-positive coccobacillus • Enters the body in contaminated food or drink • Rarely pathogenic in healthy adults • Meningitis can occur in pregnant women, fetuses, newborns, and the elderly or immunocompromised - Streptococcus agalactiae • Lancefield group B streptococcus • Normal vaginal microbiota in some women • Capsule allows bacteria to evade phagocytosis • Causes bacteremia, pneumonia, and meningitis in newborns (leading cause for this group) 2. Differentiate between the two types of polio vaccines. Salk vaccine: inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) - Advantages: effective, inexpensive; stable during transport and storage; poses no risk of vaccine-related disease. - Disadvantages: requires booster to achieve lifelong immunity; must be injected; requires higher community immunization rate than does OPV. Sabin vaccine: attenuated, oral polio vaccine (OPV) - Advantages: provides lifelong immunity without boosters; triggers secretory antibody response similar to natural infection; easy to administer; results in herd immunity. - Disadvantages: less stable than IPV; can mutate to disease-causing form; poses risk of polio developing in immunocompromised contacts of those vaccinated. 3. Describe the pathogenesis of botulism. Botulism: - Pathogenesis • Clostridium botulinum is the causative agent • Gram-positive, endospore-forming bacillus • Common worldwide in soil and water • Different strains produce one of seven neurotoxins-most deadliest toxins 4. What is the pathogen and its virulence factors in Hansen’s disease? Hansen’s Disease: - Pathogen and virulence factors - Mycobacterium leprae is the causative agent - Gram-positive bacillus - Mycolic acid in the cell wall is responsible for several characteristics of the bacterium - Slow growth rate - Protection from phagocytic lysis - Growth within phagocytes - Resistance to many antimicrobial drugs 5. List and describe the different infections of the eye. Opthalmia Neonatorum: inflammation of the conjunctiva and cornea of a newborn Conjunctivitis: inflammation of the conjunctiva Keratitis: inflammation of the cornea Chapter 21 1. Describe septicemia, bacteremia, lymphangitis and toxemia (include signs and symptoms). Septicemia: - Any microbial infection of the blood that produces illness - Signs and symptoms: fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malaise. - Septic shock can develop rapidly - Small hemorrhagic lesions called petechiae can develop Bacteremia: - Bacterial septicemia - Signs and symptoms (see above) Lymphangitis: - Infection and inflammation of the lymphatic vessels - Signs and symptoms (see above) Toxemia: - Release of bacterial toxins into the blood such as Staphylococcus and Toxic Shock Syndrome. - Exotoxins: released from living microorganisms - Endotoxin: released from Gram-negative bacteria 2. Describe signs, symptoms and pathogenesis of brucellosis. Brucellosis: - Signs and symptoms • Fluctuating fever that spikes every afternoon-24 hour intervals. - Pathogenesis and epidemiology • Consumption of contaminated dairy products • Contact with animal blood, urine, or placentas 3. Describe signs, symptoms, and pathogenesis of the plague (include variations). Plague: - Signs and symptoms - Bubonic plague • Characterized by enlarged lymph nodes called buboes - Pneumonic plague • Occurs when the bacterium spreads to the lungs • Difficulty breathing can develop rapidly - Pathogenesis and epidemiology • Transmitted by contact with infected animal or flea feces • Bubonic plague fatal in 50% of cases in untreated 4. Compare and contrast Epstein Barr and Cytomegalovirus. How does Epstein Barr effect different ages? What are possible side effects of Cytomegalovirus? Epstein-Barr: - Establishes latent infection in host - Suppresses apoptosis of infected B cells - Transmissions occurs via saliva - Majority of adults have antibodies against EBV Cytomegalovirus: - Asymptomatic in most cases - Complications in neonates and the immunocompromised-teratogenic (can halt pregnancy or cause birth defects) - Transmitted by direct contact with bodily fluids or transplacentally - One of the most common infections of humans 5. What are some genetic traits that increase resistance to malaria? - Presence of the sickle-cell gene - Presence of two genes for hemoglobin C - Genetic deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase - Lack of Duffy antigens on erythrocytes Chapter 22 1. Name streptococcal respiratory infections, and what diseases can result from the initial infection? Pharyngitis: - Sore throat and difficulty swallowing, purulent pockets in throat - Often accompanied by fever, malaise, and headache - Laryngitis and bronchitis can occur if infection spreads to lower respiratory tract - May progress to scarlet or rheumatic fever - Acute glomerulonephritis occurs in some untreated cases 2. Describe characteristics of the common cold. Common Cold: - Signs and symptoms • Sneezing, runny nose, congestion, sore throat, malaise, and cough-upper respiratory infection - Numerous other viruses cause colds - Cold viruses replicate at the lower temperature of the nasal cavity 3. Describe the characteristics of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis: - Leading disease killer in the world - Incidence has declined in the industrialized world - Initially limited to minor cough and mild fever - Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Presence of mycolic acid gives bacteria unique features 4. Describe the characteristics and epidemiology of histoplasmosis. Histoplasmosis: - Asymptomatic in most cases - Symptomatic infection causes coughing with bloody sputum or skin lesions - Caused by Histoplasma capsulatum - Pathogenic yeast form at human body temperature - Humans inhale airborne spores from the soil, transmitted by birds 5. Which diseases does the DTaP vaccine provide immunity for? What is common among these diseases? - DTaP vaccine provides immunity for pertussis (whopping cough), diphtheria, and tetanus - Bacteria spreads through airborne droplets in the air. Chapter 23 1. Compare and contrast Hep A to Hap B. Hepatitis A: fecal-oral route, found in contaminated food. Hepatitis B: needles, blood, sex, fluids. - Vaccines are available for both HAV and HBV. They both also affect the liver, although Hepatitis A causes inflammation while Hepatitis B causes damage to your liver. 2. List and describe the cause of bacterial gastroenteritis. - This is associated with contaminated food or water, and/or poor living conditions. 3. Describe an organism that can be responsible for peptic ulcers? - An organism that is responsible for peptic ulcers is Helicobacter pylori. 4. Describe the characteristics of the mumps. - Caused by the mumps virus, which humans are the only natural host. There isn’t really any treatment for mumps. People that are infected usually develop lifelong immunity. 5. Describe Staphylococcal food poisoning. - Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramping - Caused by Staphylococcus aureus - Virulence factors include five enterotoxins Chapter 24 1. Describe the different stages of syphilis. Primary syphilis: painless lesions Secondary syphilis: blister like lesions; ulcerate – rash Latent syphilis Tertiary syphilis 2. Describe a Candida albicans infection. Candida albicans infections: - A yeast infection that causes vaginal candidiasis. - Candida overgrows if there is a change in vaginal pH, once it starts going, alkaline or the number of normal microbiota population are reduced. - Candida overgrows causing a yeast infection, It causes severe itching and burning. 3. How would cervical cancer be diagnosed and which organism is responsible for many cases? Cervical cancer is diagnosed by a PAP smear, the organism that is responsible for this is HPV, human papillomaviruses. 4. Describe Chlamydia infections for women and men. - Most common STD. - Women are asymptomatic, while men have painful urination and pus discharge from the penis. 5. Describe the pathogenesis of Toxic Shock Syndrome. - The bacteria that causes TSS. Is S. aureus. - Once there is some absorption of toxin in the blood, it triggers toxic shock syndrome, which is produced by strains of S. aureus. Those strains cause an over production of cytokine by the T cells. Show Less