PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
Several definitions of personality have been proposed over the years.
Examples:
‘’…the distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that make
up an individual’s personal style of interacting with the physical and social environment’’
(Atkinson, Atkinson & Hilgard 2014, p.437)
‘’… dynamic, organized set of characteristics that influences a person’s
emotions/thoughts/motivations and behaviors’’
There are 2 main ways in which personality can be approached:
• NOMOTHETIC APPROACH
seeks general laws and patterns that can be applied to many; to identify similarities.
Trait/Type/Behaviourist/Cognitive and Biological theorists use this perspective.
• IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH
focuses a lot more on the unique aspects of individuals. It’s used by humanist theorists.
TRAIT/ FACTOR THEORIES
The ultimate goal of trait theories is to discover the main traits of personality.
➢ EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY
EYSENCK identified 3 SUPER-FACTORS of PERSONALITY:
• EXTROVERSION
• NEUROTICISM
• PSYCHOTICISM (this trait was added later).
EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY INVENTORY (to asses Extraversion + Neuroticism)
EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (to assess all 3 super-dimensions)
Extroversion-Introversion and Neuroticism- Emotional Stability are featured in all major trait
models including Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Model (1946), Eysenck’s P-E-N Model (1975),
1
,Warren T. Norman’s Five Factor Model (1963) as well as Costa and McCrae’s ‘Big Five’
(1985).
Eysenck approached personality from a relatively biological point of view, arguing that it is
strongly influenced by "constitutional, genetic, or inborn factors, which are to be discovered
in the physiological, neurological, and biochemical structure of the individual" (Eysenck &
Eysenck 1985, p. 42-43). He believed that as much as 50% of individual differences in the 3
super-factors were down to heredity. There has been some evidence that supports this
position. Using Eysenck’s Personality Inventory, Pedersen et al. (1988) assessed extraversion
and neuroticism in monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs reared together and apart, and
concluded that about 41% of individual differences in extraversion, and about 30% of
individual differences of neuroticism were down to heredity.
Eysenck (1967) proposed the AROUSAL THEORY, suggesting that introverts have a higher
level of activity in their ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), which results in a
higher cortical arousal. Introverts try to avoid stimulation to keep their ARAS activity at an
‘optimum level’, whereas extroverts seek out stimulation to increase the level of activity.
There is only modest support for this view. The most relevant evidence has come from EEG-
brain-wave studies. Gale (1983) reviewed 33 studies with comparisons between the 2
personality groups. In 22 comparisons, the introverts were more cortically aroused than the
extraverts, but in 5 other cases significantly less aroused than their extraverted counterparts.
Geen (1984) carried out 2 experiments to measure preferred stimulation levels in extraverted
and introverted males and their effects on arousal and on the participants’ performance. In
both experiments, 70 extroverts and 70 introverts participated. When asked to choose the
level of intensity of noise that was going to be heard during a PA learning task, in both cases,
extraverts chose more’ background noise’. At another time, participants were assigned noise
at a given level of intensity. Geen found that extraverts and introverts were equivalent in
arousal under chosen stimulation, but when compared at the same intensity introverts were
more aroused. As for their performances, both extraverts and introverts performed best
when stimulated at a level of intensity chosen by themselves. More current research evidence
indicates that the real difference between extraverts and introverts is not in baseline arousal
– in ‘their resting levels’- but in arousability; with introverts being more reactive to moderate
stimulation (Stelmack 1990).
2
, As for neuroticism, Eysenck proposed that differences in this trait can be attributed to
differences in the limbic system, which controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Neurotics believed to have an ANS, that reacts strongly and quickly to emotionally arousing,
stressful situations.
EXTRAVERSION-INTROVERSION
Those who score high on extraversion tend to be outgoing, sociable, excitement-seeking,
impulsive, easy-going and optimistic. An extrovert is a people’s person, who enjoys human
interaction and social gatherings. An introvert, on the other hand, tends to turn inward
toward the inner world of thoughts, fantasies and emotions. They enjoy solitary activities and
are usually reserved. They tend to withdraw to themselves in times of conflict and emotional
distress.
NEUROTICISM-EMOTIONAL STABILITY
Those who score high on neuroticism tend to be overly emotional, moody, anxious and
worrying. Low scorers, on the other hand, are calm, even-tempered and more controlled.
Although it is important to add that neuroticism is expressed in different ways depending on
whether the individual is an extrovert or introvert. Neurotic extroverts tend to be impulsive,
aggressive, restless; very expressive in the manifestation of their emotions and neurotic
tendencies, whereas neurotic introverts tend to be more pessimistic, anxious, unsociable and
quiet.
Unlike E-I and N-ES, PSYCHOTICISM is not normally distributed. High scorers on this trait
tend to be cold, cruel, seem to lack feelings. They are also egocentric and anti-social.
➢ ‘BIG FIVE’
Warren T. Norman (1963) developed the Five Factor Model of personality (FFM). Having
expanded on Eysenck’s model of personality, he proposed 5 dimensions. Eysenck’s concepts
of Extroversion/Surgency and Neuroticism/Emotional Stability were incorporated into the
model and Culture, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were added.
Costa and McCrae (1985) had very similar findings:
3
Several definitions of personality have been proposed over the years.
Examples:
‘’…the distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that make
up an individual’s personal style of interacting with the physical and social environment’’
(Atkinson, Atkinson & Hilgard 2014, p.437)
‘’… dynamic, organized set of characteristics that influences a person’s
emotions/thoughts/motivations and behaviors’’
There are 2 main ways in which personality can be approached:
• NOMOTHETIC APPROACH
seeks general laws and patterns that can be applied to many; to identify similarities.
Trait/Type/Behaviourist/Cognitive and Biological theorists use this perspective.
• IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH
focuses a lot more on the unique aspects of individuals. It’s used by humanist theorists.
TRAIT/ FACTOR THEORIES
The ultimate goal of trait theories is to discover the main traits of personality.
➢ EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY
EYSENCK identified 3 SUPER-FACTORS of PERSONALITY:
• EXTROVERSION
• NEUROTICISM
• PSYCHOTICISM (this trait was added later).
EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY INVENTORY (to asses Extraversion + Neuroticism)
EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (to assess all 3 super-dimensions)
Extroversion-Introversion and Neuroticism- Emotional Stability are featured in all major trait
models including Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Model (1946), Eysenck’s P-E-N Model (1975),
1
,Warren T. Norman’s Five Factor Model (1963) as well as Costa and McCrae’s ‘Big Five’
(1985).
Eysenck approached personality from a relatively biological point of view, arguing that it is
strongly influenced by "constitutional, genetic, or inborn factors, which are to be discovered
in the physiological, neurological, and biochemical structure of the individual" (Eysenck &
Eysenck 1985, p. 42-43). He believed that as much as 50% of individual differences in the 3
super-factors were down to heredity. There has been some evidence that supports this
position. Using Eysenck’s Personality Inventory, Pedersen et al. (1988) assessed extraversion
and neuroticism in monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs reared together and apart, and
concluded that about 41% of individual differences in extraversion, and about 30% of
individual differences of neuroticism were down to heredity.
Eysenck (1967) proposed the AROUSAL THEORY, suggesting that introverts have a higher
level of activity in their ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), which results in a
higher cortical arousal. Introverts try to avoid stimulation to keep their ARAS activity at an
‘optimum level’, whereas extroverts seek out stimulation to increase the level of activity.
There is only modest support for this view. The most relevant evidence has come from EEG-
brain-wave studies. Gale (1983) reviewed 33 studies with comparisons between the 2
personality groups. In 22 comparisons, the introverts were more cortically aroused than the
extraverts, but in 5 other cases significantly less aroused than their extraverted counterparts.
Geen (1984) carried out 2 experiments to measure preferred stimulation levels in extraverted
and introverted males and their effects on arousal and on the participants’ performance. In
both experiments, 70 extroverts and 70 introverts participated. When asked to choose the
level of intensity of noise that was going to be heard during a PA learning task, in both cases,
extraverts chose more’ background noise’. At another time, participants were assigned noise
at a given level of intensity. Geen found that extraverts and introverts were equivalent in
arousal under chosen stimulation, but when compared at the same intensity introverts were
more aroused. As for their performances, both extraverts and introverts performed best
when stimulated at a level of intensity chosen by themselves. More current research evidence
indicates that the real difference between extraverts and introverts is not in baseline arousal
– in ‘their resting levels’- but in arousability; with introverts being more reactive to moderate
stimulation (Stelmack 1990).
2
, As for neuroticism, Eysenck proposed that differences in this trait can be attributed to
differences in the limbic system, which controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Neurotics believed to have an ANS, that reacts strongly and quickly to emotionally arousing,
stressful situations.
EXTRAVERSION-INTROVERSION
Those who score high on extraversion tend to be outgoing, sociable, excitement-seeking,
impulsive, easy-going and optimistic. An extrovert is a people’s person, who enjoys human
interaction and social gatherings. An introvert, on the other hand, tends to turn inward
toward the inner world of thoughts, fantasies and emotions. They enjoy solitary activities and
are usually reserved. They tend to withdraw to themselves in times of conflict and emotional
distress.
NEUROTICISM-EMOTIONAL STABILITY
Those who score high on neuroticism tend to be overly emotional, moody, anxious and
worrying. Low scorers, on the other hand, are calm, even-tempered and more controlled.
Although it is important to add that neuroticism is expressed in different ways depending on
whether the individual is an extrovert or introvert. Neurotic extroverts tend to be impulsive,
aggressive, restless; very expressive in the manifestation of their emotions and neurotic
tendencies, whereas neurotic introverts tend to be more pessimistic, anxious, unsociable and
quiet.
Unlike E-I and N-ES, PSYCHOTICISM is not normally distributed. High scorers on this trait
tend to be cold, cruel, seem to lack feelings. They are also egocentric and anti-social.
➢ ‘BIG FIVE’
Warren T. Norman (1963) developed the Five Factor Model of personality (FFM). Having
expanded on Eysenck’s model of personality, he proposed 5 dimensions. Eysenck’s concepts
of Extroversion/Surgency and Neuroticism/Emotional Stability were incorporated into the
model and Culture, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were added.
Costa and McCrae (1985) had very similar findings:
3
