Summary Video Lectures Rejecting Minorities
Lecture 1 - Social Identity Theory (SIT)
Part 1 - Research philosophy
Problem driven research:
1. Problem: What do we want to know?
2. Theory: How does a theory explain the problem?
3. Research: Test the predictions made by the theory.
- Problem = societal issue & a related question.
- Related question = research question; judgement and value free, as specific
as possible.
- Descriptive question: To what extent do we observe a problem?
- Trend question: How did the problem change over time?
- Comparison question: To what extent are there differences within a
problem (e.g. between areas or groups).
- Explanation question (why-question): Why does this problem exist?
Why did the problem change? Why do we observe differences?
Part 2 - Minimal group experiments
Group formation: categorization process is a central component of SIT.
1. Evolutionary perspective: necessary to distinguish friend and enemy.
2. Cognitive perspective: necessary to process large amounts of information.
Categorization:
- People search actively for information.
- People simplify processing all that information by ignoring certain differences
and emphasizing (or even exaggerating) certain similarities of that
information.
- Example: missing hammer when camping.
SIT experiment 1: non-social stimuli
- Tajfel: How do people deal with categories?
- Line experiment, results: people overestimate the differences between
groups, and underestimate the differences within groups.
- When we have the opportunity to categorize things, we draw
conclusions based on that.
- Can this be generalized to social stimuli?
SIT experiment 2: minimal group experiment
- Goal: manipulate social categorization as an independent variable.
- Step 1: Generate social categorization on the basis of a trivial
criterion → no meaning in the categorization.
, - Step 2: Let participants give rewards to members of their own and the other
group.
- Categories: Fairness, maximum profit, maximum difference, favouritism
of the in-group.
- Dot-experiment (over- and underestimaters): people choose most of the time
that the in-group member gets the maximum difference in opposition to the
out-group member.
- Conclusion: group formation leads to discriminatory behavior (in-group
favoritism).
- Even if groups are formed on the basis of a trivial category.
- Tajfel: ‘Social categroization per se is a sufficient condition for the
development of intergroup bias’ (discrimination in favor of the own
group).
- When people can gain money themselves, they behave differently.
Part 3 - Social identity theory
Four central concepts:
1. Social categorization
- Tajfel: ‘Process of bringing together social objects or events in groups
which are equivalent with regard to an individual’s actions, intentions
and system of beliefs.’
- Similar to categorization on non-social stimuli:
- Use of any characteristic available.
- Perceive more similarity within and more differences between
categories.
- Not just the basis of how we perceive the world, but also who we
perceive ourselves…
2. Social identity
- Is based on the realization that one belongs to a social category and
the positive or negative evaluation associated with this membership.
- Are divisive and exclusive: you either belong or you don’t.
- Are context dependent (you identify with different groups in
different situations).
- Have a cultural component (with certain behaviors and
normative expectations). This turns a category into an identity.
- Include a judgement of the nature of people in a certain
category.
- This is more than a minimal group. Social identities may thus have
even more powerful consequences in intergroup interaction.
3. Social comparison
- Through social comparison with other groups, people try to evaluate
their group’s relative status.
- People strive for a positive social identity.
- People are motivated to belong to a positively evaluated group.
, -They value their own group more than other groups (social
identification versus contra-identification).
→ Main reason for discrimination (seen as).
4. Psychological group distinctiveness
- On the one hand, people want to belong to a positively evaluated
group.
- On the other hand, people have the need to be distinct from others.
- People thus try to achieve a position of their group that is distinct and
positive.
Part 4 - Understanding behavior
People strive to belong to groups that have positive and distinct identities, by
intergroup comparison.
- Two possible outcomes:
1. Adequate social identity: your group is actually on top/positive.
2. Inadequate social identity: your group has a lower social status.
- Two goals adequate social identity:
1. Attempt to maintain superiority.
2. Attempt to extend superiority.
- People with an inadequate social identity will seek change → Are there
cognitive alternatives?
- Cognitive alternatives: whatever you think it is possible for your group
to change their social position within the system.
→ NO: situation stable/legitimized → individual strategy: you can
change your own position.
1. Social mobility: individuals leave the social group and search
for a higher status group.
2. Intra-group comparison: feeling better about yourself by
comparison with lower status people.
→ YES: situation not stable/legitimized → group strategy:
changing the status of the group.
1. Absorption into another group or culture.
2. Redefine characteristics: negative characteristics changing
into something positive.
3. Creativity: opening up a new dimension for comparison
between groups.
4. Compared to other social groups who are more negative than
your group.
5. Challenge another group by demonstrating (only strategy where
you don’t have to give up the ideals of your group).
Summary social identity theory:
- Helps understand positive and negative social relationships.
- Explains behavior of dominant and subordinate groups.
, - Allows clear hypotheses about group members’ behavior if they face negative
social identity.
- Is broadly applicable.
Example Black Piet: they are seen as having a lower social status, so also
black people have → they want to change them and there are cognitive
alternatives.
- Challenge by demonstrating against the majority.
- Dominant group attempts to maintain superiority.
- Challenge is seen as a treat.
- The Dutch react harshly to accusations that one of their traditions is
racist.
Lecture 1 - Social Identity Theory (SIT)
Part 1 - Research philosophy
Problem driven research:
1. Problem: What do we want to know?
2. Theory: How does a theory explain the problem?
3. Research: Test the predictions made by the theory.
- Problem = societal issue & a related question.
- Related question = research question; judgement and value free, as specific
as possible.
- Descriptive question: To what extent do we observe a problem?
- Trend question: How did the problem change over time?
- Comparison question: To what extent are there differences within a
problem (e.g. between areas or groups).
- Explanation question (why-question): Why does this problem exist?
Why did the problem change? Why do we observe differences?
Part 2 - Minimal group experiments
Group formation: categorization process is a central component of SIT.
1. Evolutionary perspective: necessary to distinguish friend and enemy.
2. Cognitive perspective: necessary to process large amounts of information.
Categorization:
- People search actively for information.
- People simplify processing all that information by ignoring certain differences
and emphasizing (or even exaggerating) certain similarities of that
information.
- Example: missing hammer when camping.
SIT experiment 1: non-social stimuli
- Tajfel: How do people deal with categories?
- Line experiment, results: people overestimate the differences between
groups, and underestimate the differences within groups.
- When we have the opportunity to categorize things, we draw
conclusions based on that.
- Can this be generalized to social stimuli?
SIT experiment 2: minimal group experiment
- Goal: manipulate social categorization as an independent variable.
- Step 1: Generate social categorization on the basis of a trivial
criterion → no meaning in the categorization.
, - Step 2: Let participants give rewards to members of their own and the other
group.
- Categories: Fairness, maximum profit, maximum difference, favouritism
of the in-group.
- Dot-experiment (over- and underestimaters): people choose most of the time
that the in-group member gets the maximum difference in opposition to the
out-group member.
- Conclusion: group formation leads to discriminatory behavior (in-group
favoritism).
- Even if groups are formed on the basis of a trivial category.
- Tajfel: ‘Social categroization per se is a sufficient condition for the
development of intergroup bias’ (discrimination in favor of the own
group).
- When people can gain money themselves, they behave differently.
Part 3 - Social identity theory
Four central concepts:
1. Social categorization
- Tajfel: ‘Process of bringing together social objects or events in groups
which are equivalent with regard to an individual’s actions, intentions
and system of beliefs.’
- Similar to categorization on non-social stimuli:
- Use of any characteristic available.
- Perceive more similarity within and more differences between
categories.
- Not just the basis of how we perceive the world, but also who we
perceive ourselves…
2. Social identity
- Is based on the realization that one belongs to a social category and
the positive or negative evaluation associated with this membership.
- Are divisive and exclusive: you either belong or you don’t.
- Are context dependent (you identify with different groups in
different situations).
- Have a cultural component (with certain behaviors and
normative expectations). This turns a category into an identity.
- Include a judgement of the nature of people in a certain
category.
- This is more than a minimal group. Social identities may thus have
even more powerful consequences in intergroup interaction.
3. Social comparison
- Through social comparison with other groups, people try to evaluate
their group’s relative status.
- People strive for a positive social identity.
- People are motivated to belong to a positively evaluated group.
, -They value their own group more than other groups (social
identification versus contra-identification).
→ Main reason for discrimination (seen as).
4. Psychological group distinctiveness
- On the one hand, people want to belong to a positively evaluated
group.
- On the other hand, people have the need to be distinct from others.
- People thus try to achieve a position of their group that is distinct and
positive.
Part 4 - Understanding behavior
People strive to belong to groups that have positive and distinct identities, by
intergroup comparison.
- Two possible outcomes:
1. Adequate social identity: your group is actually on top/positive.
2. Inadequate social identity: your group has a lower social status.
- Two goals adequate social identity:
1. Attempt to maintain superiority.
2. Attempt to extend superiority.
- People with an inadequate social identity will seek change → Are there
cognitive alternatives?
- Cognitive alternatives: whatever you think it is possible for your group
to change their social position within the system.
→ NO: situation stable/legitimized → individual strategy: you can
change your own position.
1. Social mobility: individuals leave the social group and search
for a higher status group.
2. Intra-group comparison: feeling better about yourself by
comparison with lower status people.
→ YES: situation not stable/legitimized → group strategy:
changing the status of the group.
1. Absorption into another group or culture.
2. Redefine characteristics: negative characteristics changing
into something positive.
3. Creativity: opening up a new dimension for comparison
between groups.
4. Compared to other social groups who are more negative than
your group.
5. Challenge another group by demonstrating (only strategy where
you don’t have to give up the ideals of your group).
Summary social identity theory:
- Helps understand positive and negative social relationships.
- Explains behavior of dominant and subordinate groups.
, - Allows clear hypotheses about group members’ behavior if they face negative
social identity.
- Is broadly applicable.
Example Black Piet: they are seen as having a lower social status, so also
black people have → they want to change them and there are cognitive
alternatives.
- Challenge by demonstrating against the majority.
- Dominant group attempts to maintain superiority.
- Challenge is seen as a treat.
- The Dutch react harshly to accusations that one of their traditions is
racist.
