DIVERSITY AND COMMUNITY
LECTURE 1: DEFINING SOCIAL COHESION IN DIVERSE SOCIETIES
Immigration and diversity, a social problem?
Social problem = any condition or behaviour that has negative consequences for large numbers of people and
that is generally recognized as a condition or behaviour that needs to be addressed. Social problems exist when
there is a sizable difference between the ideal of a society and actual conditions.
Examples: Black Lives Matter, Zwarte Piet
Percentage of people that finds that immigrants have a bad impact on the development of your country:
The aim of this course is to debunk some popular ideas about migration by critically reviewing scientific
evidence of how migration impacts Western societies.
SOCIAL COHESION
Mechanical solidarity vs organic solidarity
,Sociale orde volgens Durkheim is kwestie van:
- Sociale cohesie (samenhang) en sociale solidariteit (sterke ‘wij’ gevoelens van onderlinge verbondenheid)
- Sociale integratie (het integreren van afzonderlijke eenheden in groter geheel) bv. individuen in een sociaal verband
Hij onderscheidt twee basisvormen van orde en solidariteit:
- Mechanische solidariteit (integratiemechanisme agrarische samenleving)
- Organische solidariteit (integratiemechanisme stedelijke samenleving)
Mechanische solidariteit: gebaseerd op een sterk collectief bewustzijn of een geheel van overtuigingen dat gedeeld wordt door de leden van dezelfde
samenleving en dat werkt als sociaal feit. Voorbeeld: orthodoxe geloofsgemeenschap. Deze solidariteit is overheersend in eenvoudige samenlevingen
met weinig taakdifferentiatie, met weinig kansen tot individuele zelfontplooiing. Er is sociale uniformiteit, dus een sterk groepsleven en sterk
saamhorigheidsgevoel. Daardoor is er sterke samenhang tussen individueel en collectief bewustzijn. Vandaar: een mechanische solidariteit = een
sociale cohesie die quasi-automatisch voortvloeit uit de gelijke levenscondities en opvattingen
Organische solidariteit: In de moderne samenleving is er sterke wederzijdse afhankelijkheid door grote mate van arbeidsdeling of taakdifferentiatie.
Deze arbeidsdeling laat individuele zelfontwikkeling toe (‘eigen capaciteiten ontwikkelen’ en ‘beste geven van zichzelf’). Dit leidt tot een toenemend
individualisme en specialisering en daardoor wordt individuele zelfbewustzijn t.a.v. collectieve bewustzijn vergroot. In de toestand van arbeidsdeling en
specialisatie vervult veralgemeende afhankelijkheid – niet een collectief bewustzijn – de functie van het integreren van het maatschappelijke geheel. Bv
klant voelt zich niet in (morele) opvattingen verbonden met bakker, maar is er wel van afhankelijk (‘klant heeft bakker nodig’). Deze solidariteit is
gebaseerd op de sterke wederzijdse afhankelijkheid tussen mensen alsof de maatschappij een lichaam met organen is die op elkaar zijn aangewezen.
How to measure cohesiveness?
Multidimensional approach (Kearns & Forrest, 2000):
1. Common values
2. Social order and control: you behave according to the social norms, people are able to speak out
3. Absence of wealth disparities
4. Social capital and networks
5. Territorial identification
LITERATURE: HOOGHE, M., TRAPPERS, A., MEULEMAN, B., & REESKENS, T. (2008).
MIGRATION TO EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: A STRUCTURAL EXPLANATION OF PATTERNS,
1980-2004. IMR, 42(2), 476-504.
ABSTRACT
Various theoretical approaches have provided us with insights to explain the pattern of migration flows.
Economic theory considers migration to be a reaction to labor market and economic incentives. Cultural
theories predict that migration flows will occur according to a center-periphery pattern, while social network
analysis assumes that migrants follow already established migration networks. We test these three approaches
simultaneously, using OECD and Eurostat data on the migrant inflow into the European countries between
1980 and 2004. The analysis demonstrates that migration flows react to economic incentives, mainly with
regard to the labor market, but also to cultural and colonial linkages. There is no indication that the importance
of the colonial past is declining over time. The response of migration patterns to shortages in the labor market
is shown to be highly efficient, while the analysis shows that immigrants are not attracted by high levels of
social expenditure.
Push-pull framework = Economic factors explain migration. The supply and demand effect and individual cost-
benefit analyses eventually lead to the establishment of an equilibrium on the labor market. For example:
migrants from low income to high income economies.
, ➔ Fails to provide a sound explanation.
ECONOMIC AND LABOR THEORIES
Migrants react to shortages in the labor market, thus providing for an equilibrium in labor markets, both in
their country of origin and in the country they head to. How to measure: economic factors, such as economic
growth, income, capita, unemployment and the influx of migrants into the country.
➔ Gross domestic product/capita is not significantly related to the influx of migrants, indicating that
migrants do not systematically select the richest countries among the OECD member states. Neither is
there a significant relation with the percentage of social expenditure, indicating that migrants do not
select countries with a generous social security regime. Unemployment is the only variable with a
significant impact. The effect is negative: low unemployment figures seem to attract migrants, and
thus migration indeed primarily seems to function as a mechanism to restore imbalances in the labor
market.
➔ Migration is not just a powerful, but also a rather efficient, mechanism to restore imbalances on the
labor market. After one year only, migration flows react to signals from the labor market.
CULTURAL AND WORLD SYSTEM THEORIES
Migrant patterns reflect center/periphery relations in the world system. Migrants typically move from the
periphery to the center, in terms of linguistic dominance or cultural hegemony. Think about links between
capitalist core countries and periphery countries. Cultural ties are of crucial importance. Examples of reasons:
former occupation and colonization, active recruitment of foreign labourers, mass communication which
spreads information on Western lifestyle and shapes consumption expectations. How to measure: colonial
states and the influx of migrants from former colonies into the country.
International migration is especially likely between past colonial powers and their former colonies, because cultural,
linguistic, administrative, investment, transportation, and communication links were established early and were allowed
to develop free from outside competition during the colonial era, leading to the formation of specific transnational
markets and cultural systems. (1998:41)
➔ Colonial history: The distance from a country to the equator does not influence the inflow of
migrants. The colonial past of a country, on the other hand, seems to play an important role in
contemporary migration fluxes. This has not significantly changed over time.
➔ Language: The analysis shows that European countries whose official language is spoken by a large
number of persons outside the country indeed attract a larger number of immigrants.
SOCIAL CAPITAL OR SOCIAL NETWORK APPROACH
Migrants are attracted by the fact that other migrants from the same ethnic group have already settled in the
receiving society, thus allowing for the occurrence of networks of recruitment. Migration-facilitating networks
tend to enlarge over time, reducing the costs and risks of migration for ever-greater numbers of migrants.
➔ The initial size of the stock of foreigners in the country does not have a bearing on the subsequent
number of immigrants.
Other possible factors on migration: freedom, discrimination legislation, openness towards immigrants,
transparency.
LECTURE 2: WHAT CAUSES MIGRATION TO EUROPEAN SOCIETIES?
Massey (1999): Theoretical Approaches:
, - Economic model
- Cultural model
- Social networks model
- Cumulative causation: even if there are no real pull-factors, migration will still occur. Example: chain
migration, family reunion. “The theory of the cumulative causation of migration posits that as
migratory experience grows within a sending community, the likelihood that other community
members will initiate a migratory trip increases.”
PUSH-PULL FRAMEWORK
ECONOMIC FACTORS
Dual Labour Market Theory: According to dual labour market theory, migration is caused by pull factors in
developed countries and not by push factors in sending countries. It is the economic structure of developed
nations that requires a permanent supply of labour. Here comes the explanation: there are always jobs that are
difficult to fill because they are dirty, dangerous and demanding. Wages for these jobs are low and so is the
prestige.
World Systems Theory: Migration is a natural outcome of the disruptions and dislocations that occur during
the course of capitalist development and expansion. → colonial past, moving from dependent to independent.
CULTURAL EXPLANATIONS
Capitalist core = cultural core
LECTURE 1: DEFINING SOCIAL COHESION IN DIVERSE SOCIETIES
Immigration and diversity, a social problem?
Social problem = any condition or behaviour that has negative consequences for large numbers of people and
that is generally recognized as a condition or behaviour that needs to be addressed. Social problems exist when
there is a sizable difference between the ideal of a society and actual conditions.
Examples: Black Lives Matter, Zwarte Piet
Percentage of people that finds that immigrants have a bad impact on the development of your country:
The aim of this course is to debunk some popular ideas about migration by critically reviewing scientific
evidence of how migration impacts Western societies.
SOCIAL COHESION
Mechanical solidarity vs organic solidarity
,Sociale orde volgens Durkheim is kwestie van:
- Sociale cohesie (samenhang) en sociale solidariteit (sterke ‘wij’ gevoelens van onderlinge verbondenheid)
- Sociale integratie (het integreren van afzonderlijke eenheden in groter geheel) bv. individuen in een sociaal verband
Hij onderscheidt twee basisvormen van orde en solidariteit:
- Mechanische solidariteit (integratiemechanisme agrarische samenleving)
- Organische solidariteit (integratiemechanisme stedelijke samenleving)
Mechanische solidariteit: gebaseerd op een sterk collectief bewustzijn of een geheel van overtuigingen dat gedeeld wordt door de leden van dezelfde
samenleving en dat werkt als sociaal feit. Voorbeeld: orthodoxe geloofsgemeenschap. Deze solidariteit is overheersend in eenvoudige samenlevingen
met weinig taakdifferentiatie, met weinig kansen tot individuele zelfontplooiing. Er is sociale uniformiteit, dus een sterk groepsleven en sterk
saamhorigheidsgevoel. Daardoor is er sterke samenhang tussen individueel en collectief bewustzijn. Vandaar: een mechanische solidariteit = een
sociale cohesie die quasi-automatisch voortvloeit uit de gelijke levenscondities en opvattingen
Organische solidariteit: In de moderne samenleving is er sterke wederzijdse afhankelijkheid door grote mate van arbeidsdeling of taakdifferentiatie.
Deze arbeidsdeling laat individuele zelfontwikkeling toe (‘eigen capaciteiten ontwikkelen’ en ‘beste geven van zichzelf’). Dit leidt tot een toenemend
individualisme en specialisering en daardoor wordt individuele zelfbewustzijn t.a.v. collectieve bewustzijn vergroot. In de toestand van arbeidsdeling en
specialisatie vervult veralgemeende afhankelijkheid – niet een collectief bewustzijn – de functie van het integreren van het maatschappelijke geheel. Bv
klant voelt zich niet in (morele) opvattingen verbonden met bakker, maar is er wel van afhankelijk (‘klant heeft bakker nodig’). Deze solidariteit is
gebaseerd op de sterke wederzijdse afhankelijkheid tussen mensen alsof de maatschappij een lichaam met organen is die op elkaar zijn aangewezen.
How to measure cohesiveness?
Multidimensional approach (Kearns & Forrest, 2000):
1. Common values
2. Social order and control: you behave according to the social norms, people are able to speak out
3. Absence of wealth disparities
4. Social capital and networks
5. Territorial identification
LITERATURE: HOOGHE, M., TRAPPERS, A., MEULEMAN, B., & REESKENS, T. (2008).
MIGRATION TO EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: A STRUCTURAL EXPLANATION OF PATTERNS,
1980-2004. IMR, 42(2), 476-504.
ABSTRACT
Various theoretical approaches have provided us with insights to explain the pattern of migration flows.
Economic theory considers migration to be a reaction to labor market and economic incentives. Cultural
theories predict that migration flows will occur according to a center-periphery pattern, while social network
analysis assumes that migrants follow already established migration networks. We test these three approaches
simultaneously, using OECD and Eurostat data on the migrant inflow into the European countries between
1980 and 2004. The analysis demonstrates that migration flows react to economic incentives, mainly with
regard to the labor market, but also to cultural and colonial linkages. There is no indication that the importance
of the colonial past is declining over time. The response of migration patterns to shortages in the labor market
is shown to be highly efficient, while the analysis shows that immigrants are not attracted by high levels of
social expenditure.
Push-pull framework = Economic factors explain migration. The supply and demand effect and individual cost-
benefit analyses eventually lead to the establishment of an equilibrium on the labor market. For example:
migrants from low income to high income economies.
, ➔ Fails to provide a sound explanation.
ECONOMIC AND LABOR THEORIES
Migrants react to shortages in the labor market, thus providing for an equilibrium in labor markets, both in
their country of origin and in the country they head to. How to measure: economic factors, such as economic
growth, income, capita, unemployment and the influx of migrants into the country.
➔ Gross domestic product/capita is not significantly related to the influx of migrants, indicating that
migrants do not systematically select the richest countries among the OECD member states. Neither is
there a significant relation with the percentage of social expenditure, indicating that migrants do not
select countries with a generous social security regime. Unemployment is the only variable with a
significant impact. The effect is negative: low unemployment figures seem to attract migrants, and
thus migration indeed primarily seems to function as a mechanism to restore imbalances in the labor
market.
➔ Migration is not just a powerful, but also a rather efficient, mechanism to restore imbalances on the
labor market. After one year only, migration flows react to signals from the labor market.
CULTURAL AND WORLD SYSTEM THEORIES
Migrant patterns reflect center/periphery relations in the world system. Migrants typically move from the
periphery to the center, in terms of linguistic dominance or cultural hegemony. Think about links between
capitalist core countries and periphery countries. Cultural ties are of crucial importance. Examples of reasons:
former occupation and colonization, active recruitment of foreign labourers, mass communication which
spreads information on Western lifestyle and shapes consumption expectations. How to measure: colonial
states and the influx of migrants from former colonies into the country.
International migration is especially likely between past colonial powers and their former colonies, because cultural,
linguistic, administrative, investment, transportation, and communication links were established early and were allowed
to develop free from outside competition during the colonial era, leading to the formation of specific transnational
markets and cultural systems. (1998:41)
➔ Colonial history: The distance from a country to the equator does not influence the inflow of
migrants. The colonial past of a country, on the other hand, seems to play an important role in
contemporary migration fluxes. This has not significantly changed over time.
➔ Language: The analysis shows that European countries whose official language is spoken by a large
number of persons outside the country indeed attract a larger number of immigrants.
SOCIAL CAPITAL OR SOCIAL NETWORK APPROACH
Migrants are attracted by the fact that other migrants from the same ethnic group have already settled in the
receiving society, thus allowing for the occurrence of networks of recruitment. Migration-facilitating networks
tend to enlarge over time, reducing the costs and risks of migration for ever-greater numbers of migrants.
➔ The initial size of the stock of foreigners in the country does not have a bearing on the subsequent
number of immigrants.
Other possible factors on migration: freedom, discrimination legislation, openness towards immigrants,
transparency.
LECTURE 2: WHAT CAUSES MIGRATION TO EUROPEAN SOCIETIES?
Massey (1999): Theoretical Approaches:
, - Economic model
- Cultural model
- Social networks model
- Cumulative causation: even if there are no real pull-factors, migration will still occur. Example: chain
migration, family reunion. “The theory of the cumulative causation of migration posits that as
migratory experience grows within a sending community, the likelihood that other community
members will initiate a migratory trip increases.”
PUSH-PULL FRAMEWORK
ECONOMIC FACTORS
Dual Labour Market Theory: According to dual labour market theory, migration is caused by pull factors in
developed countries and not by push factors in sending countries. It is the economic structure of developed
nations that requires a permanent supply of labour. Here comes the explanation: there are always jobs that are
difficult to fill because they are dirty, dangerous and demanding. Wages for these jobs are low and so is the
prestige.
World Systems Theory: Migration is a natural outcome of the disruptions and dislocations that occur during
the course of capitalist development and expansion. → colonial past, moving from dependent to independent.
CULTURAL EXPLANATIONS
Capitalist core = cultural core
