Inhoud
Chapter 1 | Questions............................................................................................. 3
1.1 | The sociological perspective.......................................................................3
1.2 | Social problems........................................................................................... 4
1.3 | Three aims of sociology............................................................................... 5
1.4 | Three types of sociological questions..........................................................5
1.5 | The art of asking good sociological questions.............................................6
1.6 | Sociology and common sense.....................................................................6
1.7 | Sociology as cumulative science.................................................................7
Chapter 2 | Theories............................................................................................... 8
2.2 | Theories and explanations..........................................................................8
2.3 | What are useful sociological theories?........................................................9
2.4 | Durkheim’s theory of suicide.......................................................................9
2.5 | Concepts..................................................................................................... 9
2.6 | Causality................................................................................................... 10
2.7 | Conceptual models.................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3 | Methods............................................................................................. 11
3.2 | Measurement quality................................................................................ 11
3.3 | External validity........................................................................................ 12
3.4 | Internal validity......................................................................................... 12
3.5 | Exploratory research................................................................................. 13
3.7 | Case study research.................................................................................. 13
3.8 | Administrative research............................................................................ 13
3.9 | Survey research........................................................................................ 13
3.10 | Big data research.................................................................................... 13
3.11 | Experimental research............................................................................ 14
3.12 | Replication.............................................................................................. 14
Chapter 4 | Perspectives....................................................................................... 14
4.1 | The origin of sociological perspectives......................................................14
4.2 | Sociological themes and topics.................................................................15
4.3 | Causal explaining or subjective understanding?.......................................15
4.4 | Multilevel framework................................................................................. 16
Chapter 5 | Opinions............................................................................................. 16
5.2 | Self-fulfilling prophecy............................................................................... 16
5.3 | Conformity................................................................................................ 17
5.4 | Informational and normative social influence...........................................17
5.5 | Social learning theory............................................................................... 18
5.6 | Popularity of cultural products..................................................................19
1
, 5.7 | Diffusion of innovations............................................................................. 19
Chapter 6 | Norms................................................................................................ 20
6.2 | What are social norms?............................................................................. 20
6.3 | Social control theory................................................................................. 20
6.4 | Internalized norms.................................................................................... 21
6.5 | Legal norms............................................................................................... 21
6.6 | Why do norms emerge?............................................................................ 21
6.7 | Cultural maladaptation and norm change.................................................22
6.8 | The dynamics of group distinction............................................................22
Chapter 7 | Networks............................................................................................ 23
7.2 | Personal networks..................................................................................... 23
7.3 | Network size and hubs.............................................................................. 24
7.4 | Network density and transivity..................................................................24
7.5 | The small-world phenomenon...................................................................25
7.6 | Network change: loss-of-community?.......................................................25
7.7 | Networks and social cohesion...................................................................25
7.8 | Networks and social capital.......................................................................26
Social norms................................................................................................... 26
Trust............................................................................................................... 26
Health and well-being.................................................................................... 26
Chapter 8 | Groups............................................................................................... 26
8.1 | Groups unite and divide............................................................................ 26
8.2 | Group segregation..................................................................................... 27
8.3 | The causes of group segregation..............................................................27
Constraint: structural opportunity..................................................................28
Choice: homophily.......................................................................................... 28
Transitivity..................................................................................................... 28
Third party theory.......................................................................................... 28
8.4 | In-group favoritism.................................................................................... 29
8.5 | Social context and in-group favoritism......................................................29
8.6 | Group threat theory.................................................................................. 29
Chapter 9 | Stratification and mobility..................................................................30
9.1 | What makes you happy?...........................................................................30
9.2 | Social class and status.............................................................................. 30
9.3 | Income and wealth.................................................................................... 30
9.4 | Long-term changes in stratification...........................................................31
9.5 | Social mobility........................................................................................... 31
9.6 | Ascription and achievement......................................................................31
9.7 | Modernization and mobility theory............................................................32
2
, 9.8 | Cultural reproduction theory.....................................................................33
9.9 | The Great Gatsby Curve............................................................................ 34
Chapter 10 | Resources........................................................................................ 34
10.1 | Human capital......................................................................................... 34
10.2 | Social capital........................................................................................... 35
Granovetter’s theory: strong and weak ties...................................................35
Burt’s theory: structural holes........................................................................35
Lin’s theory: social resources.........................................................................36
10.3 | Group affiliation and discrimination........................................................36
10.4 | Inequality of outcomes, opportunities and returns..................................36
10.5 | Gender inequality.................................................................................... 37
Chapter 11 | Immigration and integration............................................................39
11.2 | International migration............................................................................39
11.3 | Integration: what does it mean?..............................................................39
11.4 | Integration: changes over time?..............................................................40
11.5 | Integration: social context affects?.........................................................40
11.7 | Integration: selective or spillover effect?................................................40
11.8 | The dynamics of residential segregation.................................................41
Chapter 12 | Modernization.................................................................................. 41
12.2 | Wealth and health................................................................................... 41
12.3 | Peace and safety..................................................................................... 41
12.4 | Rationalization........................................................................................ 41
12.5 | Technological progress............................................................................42
12.6 | Scientization............................................................................................ 42
12.7 | McDonaldization...................................................................................... 42
12.8 | Value change.......................................................................................... 43
12.9 | Population change................................................................................... 44
12.10 | The dynamics of modernization............................................................44
Chapter 13 | Religion............................................................................................ 45
13.1 | What is religion?...................................................................................... 45
13.2 | Did religions solve the problem of human cooperation?.........................45
13.3 | The stickiness factor of religion...............................................................46
13.4 | Secularization in Western Europe............................................................46
13.5 | Modernization and secularization............................................................46
13.6 | Existential insecurity theory....................................................................46
Chapter 1 | Questions
1.1 | The sociological perspective
Sociology
3
, Sociology is the scientific study of social phenomena. This means that, if you
want to give a sociological explanation of human behaviour, you need to consider
the influence of social contexts and study the resulting collective human
behaviour.
Perspectives on human behaviour
Individual Sociological perspective
perspective
Phenomena of Individual Social phenomena, collective
interest phenomena, behaviour
individual behaviour (Why is obesity increasing in
(Why is John obese?) society?)
Explanations for Individual Social context, social causes
behaviour characteristics (country, neighbourhood,
(personality, genes) school)
Supplemental perspective: the individual and sociological perspectives together
provide a more comprehensive explanation of human behaviour.
Alternative perspectives: only the sociological or only the individual perspective
matters in explaining human behaviour.
Proximate causes: factors that are close to the phenomena that is explained.
Ultimate causes: factors that underlie proximate causes - deeper, hidden in the
background.
Ultimate cause Proximate cause
(negative self- Consequence
(bullying) (obesity)
image)
Scale / level of social context
Micro: the level at which individuals operate (behaviour, attitudes).
Meso: social contexts in the immediate environment of individuals (family,
neighbourhood, school, work, religious community, political organization).
Macro: social contexts that are broader than meso level units (country,
continents, world).
1.2 | Social problems
Social problem / public issue: problem that
1. goes beyond the individual (it affects many people).
2. is an issue about which many people are concerned (it is in conflict with
certain values).
Some problems only occur in certain neighbourhoods. On the meso-scale
(neighbourhood) it is a social problem, on macro-scale (country) it is not.
4
Chapter 1 | Questions............................................................................................. 3
1.1 | The sociological perspective.......................................................................3
1.2 | Social problems........................................................................................... 4
1.3 | Three aims of sociology............................................................................... 5
1.4 | Three types of sociological questions..........................................................5
1.5 | The art of asking good sociological questions.............................................6
1.6 | Sociology and common sense.....................................................................6
1.7 | Sociology as cumulative science.................................................................7
Chapter 2 | Theories............................................................................................... 8
2.2 | Theories and explanations..........................................................................8
2.3 | What are useful sociological theories?........................................................9
2.4 | Durkheim’s theory of suicide.......................................................................9
2.5 | Concepts..................................................................................................... 9
2.6 | Causality................................................................................................... 10
2.7 | Conceptual models.................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3 | Methods............................................................................................. 11
3.2 | Measurement quality................................................................................ 11
3.3 | External validity........................................................................................ 12
3.4 | Internal validity......................................................................................... 12
3.5 | Exploratory research................................................................................. 13
3.7 | Case study research.................................................................................. 13
3.8 | Administrative research............................................................................ 13
3.9 | Survey research........................................................................................ 13
3.10 | Big data research.................................................................................... 13
3.11 | Experimental research............................................................................ 14
3.12 | Replication.............................................................................................. 14
Chapter 4 | Perspectives....................................................................................... 14
4.1 | The origin of sociological perspectives......................................................14
4.2 | Sociological themes and topics.................................................................15
4.3 | Causal explaining or subjective understanding?.......................................15
4.4 | Multilevel framework................................................................................. 16
Chapter 5 | Opinions............................................................................................. 16
5.2 | Self-fulfilling prophecy............................................................................... 16
5.3 | Conformity................................................................................................ 17
5.4 | Informational and normative social influence...........................................17
5.5 | Social learning theory............................................................................... 18
5.6 | Popularity of cultural products..................................................................19
1
, 5.7 | Diffusion of innovations............................................................................. 19
Chapter 6 | Norms................................................................................................ 20
6.2 | What are social norms?............................................................................. 20
6.3 | Social control theory................................................................................. 20
6.4 | Internalized norms.................................................................................... 21
6.5 | Legal norms............................................................................................... 21
6.6 | Why do norms emerge?............................................................................ 21
6.7 | Cultural maladaptation and norm change.................................................22
6.8 | The dynamics of group distinction............................................................22
Chapter 7 | Networks............................................................................................ 23
7.2 | Personal networks..................................................................................... 23
7.3 | Network size and hubs.............................................................................. 24
7.4 | Network density and transivity..................................................................24
7.5 | The small-world phenomenon...................................................................25
7.6 | Network change: loss-of-community?.......................................................25
7.7 | Networks and social cohesion...................................................................25
7.8 | Networks and social capital.......................................................................26
Social norms................................................................................................... 26
Trust............................................................................................................... 26
Health and well-being.................................................................................... 26
Chapter 8 | Groups............................................................................................... 26
8.1 | Groups unite and divide............................................................................ 26
8.2 | Group segregation..................................................................................... 27
8.3 | The causes of group segregation..............................................................27
Constraint: structural opportunity..................................................................28
Choice: homophily.......................................................................................... 28
Transitivity..................................................................................................... 28
Third party theory.......................................................................................... 28
8.4 | In-group favoritism.................................................................................... 29
8.5 | Social context and in-group favoritism......................................................29
8.6 | Group threat theory.................................................................................. 29
Chapter 9 | Stratification and mobility..................................................................30
9.1 | What makes you happy?...........................................................................30
9.2 | Social class and status.............................................................................. 30
9.3 | Income and wealth.................................................................................... 30
9.4 | Long-term changes in stratification...........................................................31
9.5 | Social mobility........................................................................................... 31
9.6 | Ascription and achievement......................................................................31
9.7 | Modernization and mobility theory............................................................32
2
, 9.8 | Cultural reproduction theory.....................................................................33
9.9 | The Great Gatsby Curve............................................................................ 34
Chapter 10 | Resources........................................................................................ 34
10.1 | Human capital......................................................................................... 34
10.2 | Social capital........................................................................................... 35
Granovetter’s theory: strong and weak ties...................................................35
Burt’s theory: structural holes........................................................................35
Lin’s theory: social resources.........................................................................36
10.3 | Group affiliation and discrimination........................................................36
10.4 | Inequality of outcomes, opportunities and returns..................................36
10.5 | Gender inequality.................................................................................... 37
Chapter 11 | Immigration and integration............................................................39
11.2 | International migration............................................................................39
11.3 | Integration: what does it mean?..............................................................39
11.4 | Integration: changes over time?..............................................................40
11.5 | Integration: social context affects?.........................................................40
11.7 | Integration: selective or spillover effect?................................................40
11.8 | The dynamics of residential segregation.................................................41
Chapter 12 | Modernization.................................................................................. 41
12.2 | Wealth and health................................................................................... 41
12.3 | Peace and safety..................................................................................... 41
12.4 | Rationalization........................................................................................ 41
12.5 | Technological progress............................................................................42
12.6 | Scientization............................................................................................ 42
12.7 | McDonaldization...................................................................................... 42
12.8 | Value change.......................................................................................... 43
12.9 | Population change................................................................................... 44
12.10 | The dynamics of modernization............................................................44
Chapter 13 | Religion............................................................................................ 45
13.1 | What is religion?...................................................................................... 45
13.2 | Did religions solve the problem of human cooperation?.........................45
13.3 | The stickiness factor of religion...............................................................46
13.4 | Secularization in Western Europe............................................................46
13.5 | Modernization and secularization............................................................46
13.6 | Existential insecurity theory....................................................................46
Chapter 1 | Questions
1.1 | The sociological perspective
Sociology
3
, Sociology is the scientific study of social phenomena. This means that, if you
want to give a sociological explanation of human behaviour, you need to consider
the influence of social contexts and study the resulting collective human
behaviour.
Perspectives on human behaviour
Individual Sociological perspective
perspective
Phenomena of Individual Social phenomena, collective
interest phenomena, behaviour
individual behaviour (Why is obesity increasing in
(Why is John obese?) society?)
Explanations for Individual Social context, social causes
behaviour characteristics (country, neighbourhood,
(personality, genes) school)
Supplemental perspective: the individual and sociological perspectives together
provide a more comprehensive explanation of human behaviour.
Alternative perspectives: only the sociological or only the individual perspective
matters in explaining human behaviour.
Proximate causes: factors that are close to the phenomena that is explained.
Ultimate causes: factors that underlie proximate causes - deeper, hidden in the
background.
Ultimate cause Proximate cause
(negative self- Consequence
(bullying) (obesity)
image)
Scale / level of social context
Micro: the level at which individuals operate (behaviour, attitudes).
Meso: social contexts in the immediate environment of individuals (family,
neighbourhood, school, work, religious community, political organization).
Macro: social contexts that are broader than meso level units (country,
continents, world).
1.2 | Social problems
Social problem / public issue: problem that
1. goes beyond the individual (it affects many people).
2. is an issue about which many people are concerned (it is in conflict with
certain values).
Some problems only occur in certain neighbourhoods. On the meso-scale
(neighbourhood) it is a social problem, on macro-scale (country) it is not.
4
