Behavior and Communication in Organizations
Lecture 1: Introduction
Organizations
An organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forced of two or more
persons
Four common denominators:
1. Coordination of effort
a. Achieved by policies, rules and regulations
2. A common goal
3. Division of labour
a. Individuals perform separate but related tasks to achieve the common goals
4. Hierarchy of authority
a. Chain of command dedicated to make sure that the right people do the right
things at the right time
Organizational behavior (OB)
An interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work,
OB draws on knowledge from different disciplines. It is in reality not really interdisciplinary;
it is more multidisciplinary.
A historical perspective
Scientific Management Movement: creating standards to improve efficiency
o Taylorism
o Negative connotation because of mass production and McGregor theory X,
but it is also positive because some principles were ground-breaking (job (re)
design)
Diversity
Represent the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people,
based on four different layers
1. Personality
2. Internal dimension (age, gender, race)
3. External dimension (religion, educational background)
4. Organizational dimensions
There are two perspective on diversity in organizations:
o Diversity is good for workgroups Information/decision-making theory
Diverse group are better in problem solving
It stimulates brainstorming and contact between group members
o Diversity is bad for workgroups Social Categorization Theory
Creates ‘us versus them’ mentality
Conflict between ingroups and outgroups
,A process model of diversity:
You want to avoid fault lines: hypothetically dividing lines that may spilt groups into
subgroups based on or more dimensions. To avoid fault lines:
make a good team composition cross-categorization
strengthen the overarching identity of the team
Organizational culture
Set of shared, taken for granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines
how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its varus environments. Passed on to new
employees through the process of socialization.
Organizational culture is represented on different levels
- Observed artefacts: consist of the physical manifestation of an organizational culture
- Espoused values: explicitly stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization
International OB
Societal culture: a set of beliefs and values about what is desirable and undesirable in
community of people, and a set of formal or informal practises to support the values.
employees bring their societal culture to work with them in the form of customs and
languages.
Cultural differences may lead to culture shock. Best defence is comprehensive cross-cultural
training, including intensive language study
,Lecture 2: Attitudes and Behavior
Self-concept: The concept the individual has of him or herself
Important parts of one’s self-concept:
1. Self-esteem: believe about one’s own self-worth based on an overall self-evaluation
- Striving for a positive self-evaluation is important for human behavior
- Self-esteem is affected by:
o Downward social comparisons
o Upward social comparison
2. Self-efficacy: A person’s belief about his chances of successfully accomplishing a
specific task
What are the sources of self-efficacy beliefs?
- Prior experience
- Behavior models observing others / upward social comparisons
- Persuasion form others
o Pygmalion effect someone’s high expectations for another person result in
high self-efficacy and performance from that person.
o Golem effect someone’s low expectation for another person results in low
self-efficacy and performance for that person.
o Galatea effect an individual’s high expectations lead to high performances
- Assessment of physical/emotional state
3. Self-monitoring: The extent to which a person observes her self-expressive behavior
and adapts it to the demands of the situation
4. Organizational identification
- Social identity theory: Peoples self-concept is formed not only by their personal
identity, but also their social identity. Social identity derives from the knowledge of
membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance
attached to that membership
o cognitive element people are aware of their group memberships
o evaluative element people attached value to their group members
o affective element group members have emotional significance
People strive for a positive self-evaluation and group-evaluation. But how to deal with a low
group status?
- Outgroup favouritisms: acknowledging inferior status
- Individual mobility: weaken the ties with one’s groups to try to become a member of
a better group
- Social competition: Improve status of one’s group.
- Social creativity: choose other groups to compare with or change values of the group.
Organizational identification is strongly related to organizational commitment.
, 5. Organizational commitment
Model of Mayer and Allen: three forms of commitment:
- Affective commitment (desire): employees’ emotional attachment to the
organization.
- Normative commitment (obligation): reflects a feeling of obligation to
continue employment.
- Continuance commitment (cost/benefits): awareness of the cost and benefits
associated with leaving the organization for-lack-of-better commitment.
Consequences of commitment
Turnover and withdrawal cognitions: negative relation with commitment
Job performance: positive relation with affective commitment
Extra role behavior in organizations: a relation with affective commitment
Extra-role behaviours in organizations
Behaviours that are not part of the work-role or job description but have important
consequences for the functioning and performance of an organization:
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) positive
Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB) negative
OCB: Can be directed at other individuals (I) or at the organization as a whole (O)
- OCB-I helping colleagues with their work
- OCB-O making suggestions during meetings to improve the organization
CWB: can be directed at other individuals (I) or at the organization as a whole (O)
- CWB-I bullying or harassing colleagues
- CWB-O taking long brakes, calling in sick while you’re not, stealing
Justice as determinant of CWB
CWB are often directed at achieving some form of balance in response to organizational
injustice.
organizational justices:
1. Distributive justice: perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributes
or allocated (Adam’s Equity Theory).
2. Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the processed and procedures used to make
allocation decision, having a voice in decision is really important.
3. Interactional justice: perceived quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive
when decision are implemented, being respectfully treated is really important.
Stereotype
An individual’s set if beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group
Stereotyping: Inferring that all people within a group possesses the same traits
Lecture 1: Introduction
Organizations
An organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forced of two or more
persons
Four common denominators:
1. Coordination of effort
a. Achieved by policies, rules and regulations
2. A common goal
3. Division of labour
a. Individuals perform separate but related tasks to achieve the common goals
4. Hierarchy of authority
a. Chain of command dedicated to make sure that the right people do the right
things at the right time
Organizational behavior (OB)
An interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work,
OB draws on knowledge from different disciplines. It is in reality not really interdisciplinary;
it is more multidisciplinary.
A historical perspective
Scientific Management Movement: creating standards to improve efficiency
o Taylorism
o Negative connotation because of mass production and McGregor theory X,
but it is also positive because some principles were ground-breaking (job (re)
design)
Diversity
Represent the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people,
based on four different layers
1. Personality
2. Internal dimension (age, gender, race)
3. External dimension (religion, educational background)
4. Organizational dimensions
There are two perspective on diversity in organizations:
o Diversity is good for workgroups Information/decision-making theory
Diverse group are better in problem solving
It stimulates brainstorming and contact between group members
o Diversity is bad for workgroups Social Categorization Theory
Creates ‘us versus them’ mentality
Conflict between ingroups and outgroups
,A process model of diversity:
You want to avoid fault lines: hypothetically dividing lines that may spilt groups into
subgroups based on or more dimensions. To avoid fault lines:
make a good team composition cross-categorization
strengthen the overarching identity of the team
Organizational culture
Set of shared, taken for granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines
how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its varus environments. Passed on to new
employees through the process of socialization.
Organizational culture is represented on different levels
- Observed artefacts: consist of the physical manifestation of an organizational culture
- Espoused values: explicitly stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization
International OB
Societal culture: a set of beliefs and values about what is desirable and undesirable in
community of people, and a set of formal or informal practises to support the values.
employees bring their societal culture to work with them in the form of customs and
languages.
Cultural differences may lead to culture shock. Best defence is comprehensive cross-cultural
training, including intensive language study
,Lecture 2: Attitudes and Behavior
Self-concept: The concept the individual has of him or herself
Important parts of one’s self-concept:
1. Self-esteem: believe about one’s own self-worth based on an overall self-evaluation
- Striving for a positive self-evaluation is important for human behavior
- Self-esteem is affected by:
o Downward social comparisons
o Upward social comparison
2. Self-efficacy: A person’s belief about his chances of successfully accomplishing a
specific task
What are the sources of self-efficacy beliefs?
- Prior experience
- Behavior models observing others / upward social comparisons
- Persuasion form others
o Pygmalion effect someone’s high expectations for another person result in
high self-efficacy and performance from that person.
o Golem effect someone’s low expectation for another person results in low
self-efficacy and performance for that person.
o Galatea effect an individual’s high expectations lead to high performances
- Assessment of physical/emotional state
3. Self-monitoring: The extent to which a person observes her self-expressive behavior
and adapts it to the demands of the situation
4. Organizational identification
- Social identity theory: Peoples self-concept is formed not only by their personal
identity, but also their social identity. Social identity derives from the knowledge of
membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance
attached to that membership
o cognitive element people are aware of their group memberships
o evaluative element people attached value to their group members
o affective element group members have emotional significance
People strive for a positive self-evaluation and group-evaluation. But how to deal with a low
group status?
- Outgroup favouritisms: acknowledging inferior status
- Individual mobility: weaken the ties with one’s groups to try to become a member of
a better group
- Social competition: Improve status of one’s group.
- Social creativity: choose other groups to compare with or change values of the group.
Organizational identification is strongly related to organizational commitment.
, 5. Organizational commitment
Model of Mayer and Allen: three forms of commitment:
- Affective commitment (desire): employees’ emotional attachment to the
organization.
- Normative commitment (obligation): reflects a feeling of obligation to
continue employment.
- Continuance commitment (cost/benefits): awareness of the cost and benefits
associated with leaving the organization for-lack-of-better commitment.
Consequences of commitment
Turnover and withdrawal cognitions: negative relation with commitment
Job performance: positive relation with affective commitment
Extra role behavior in organizations: a relation with affective commitment
Extra-role behaviours in organizations
Behaviours that are not part of the work-role or job description but have important
consequences for the functioning and performance of an organization:
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) positive
Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB) negative
OCB: Can be directed at other individuals (I) or at the organization as a whole (O)
- OCB-I helping colleagues with their work
- OCB-O making suggestions during meetings to improve the organization
CWB: can be directed at other individuals (I) or at the organization as a whole (O)
- CWB-I bullying or harassing colleagues
- CWB-O taking long brakes, calling in sick while you’re not, stealing
Justice as determinant of CWB
CWB are often directed at achieving some form of balance in response to organizational
injustice.
organizational justices:
1. Distributive justice: perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributes
or allocated (Adam’s Equity Theory).
2. Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the processed and procedures used to make
allocation decision, having a voice in decision is really important.
3. Interactional justice: perceived quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive
when decision are implemented, being respectfully treated is really important.
Stereotype
An individual’s set if beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group
Stereotyping: Inferring that all people within a group possesses the same traits
