NR565 FINAL EXAM | ADVANCED PHARMACOLOGY PRACTICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS |
COMPREHENSIVE STUDY GUIDE 2026/2027
Glucose Production & Release - ANS ✔✔-All cells in the body need energy to function
• primarily comes from glucose; a type of sugar found in carbohydrates.
-between meals, glucose stores in the liver are released into the bloodstream
• ensures a constant source of energy for the body
-After a meal, carbohydrates are digested & release glucose into the bloodstream
Insulin Release in Type I Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-As glucose levels in the blood rise, beta cells in the
pancreas are stimulated to release insulin
-Insulin halts the livers glucose release & initiates small amounts of glucose to be stored in the
liver for future use
-type 1 diabetes, pancreatic beta cells are damaged or destroyed
• damaged beta cells produce little to no insulin
Systemic Insulin and Glucose in Type I Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Insulin & glucose travel through the
bloodstream to reach cells throughout the body
-Due to diminished insulin production, patients with type 1 diabetes have a low insulin
concentration & high glucose (sugar) concentration in their blood
Glucose Absorption in Type I Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Insulin is required for glucose to enter cells &
be used as energy
-Once arriving at the intended cell, insulin binds to specialized receptors on the cell surface
• initiates glucose transporters to open & glucose to flow into the cell
-type 1 diabetes, low levels of insulin prevent adequate amounts of glucose from entering the
cell
• Because glucose remains in the bloodstream & is not used by the cell as energy, patients with
type 1 diabetes may experience fatigue, exhaustion, & dizziness
,Insulin Release in Type II Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-As glucose levels in the blood rise, beta cells in the
pancreas are stimulated to release insulin
-insulin halts the livers glucose release & initiates small amounts of glucose to be stored in the
liver for future use
-In type 2 diabetes, pancreatic beta cells become damaged or destroyed over time
• damaged beta cells produce little to no insulin.
Systemic Insulin and Glucose in Type II Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Insulin & glucose travel through the
bloodstream to reach cells throughout the body
-Insulin is required for glucose to enter cells & be used as energy
-In type 2 diabetes, insulin is not used properly & glucose remains in the bloodstream
• leads to high levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia).
Glucose Absorption in Type II Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Once arriving at the intended cell, insulin
binds to specialized receptors on the cell surface
• initiates glucose transporters to open & glucose to flow into the cell
-type 2 diabetes, the body is resistant to the effects of insulin & does not properly bind to
insulin receptors
-Due to insulin resistance & resulting hyperglycemia, patients with type 2 diabetes may
experience increased thirst or hunger, fatigue, blurry vision, and slow-healing wounds
Hypothyroidism - ANS ✔✔-an underproduction of the hormone thyroxine (T4)
-When the thyroid produces too little thyroxine
• body's metabolism slows down
• wide array of effects on the body
-Hypothyroidism can cause:
• fatigue
,• depressed mood
• slow heart rate
• constipation
• weight gain
• irregular menstrual periods
-more common in women >60 & people who have a family hx of the condition
Hyperthyroidism - ANS ✔✔-an overproduction of thyroid hormones: triiodothyronine (T3), &
thyroxine (T4)
-When the thyroid produces too much T3 & T4
• metabolism increases
• can cause a wide variety of symptoms:
➣hand tremors
➣rapid heart rate
➣anxiety or irritability
➣frequent bowel movements
➣increased appetite
➣weight loss
➣infrequent menstrual periods
➣trouble sleeping
-more common in women & people who have a family hx of the condition
Negative Feedback Loop of HPA (hypothalamic pituitary axis) - ANS ✔✔
hpa - ANS ✔✔hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
, Diabetes Mellitus - ANS ✔✔-complex chronic disease
-one of the top ten causes of death in the United States
-considered the leading cause of kidney failure, nontraumatic limb amputation, new cases of
adult blindness, heart disease, & stroke
Acute symptoms of diabetes plus casual plasma glucose concentration greater than or equal to
200 mg/dL.
*Casual is defined as any time of day without regard to time since last meal. The classic
symptoms of diabetes are polyuria, polydipsia, and unexplained weight loss.
Diabetes mellitus
Pre-diabetes - ANS ✔✔Diabetes mellitus
Fasting plasma glucose greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL.
*Fasting is defined as no caloric intake for at least 8 hours.
Diabetes mellitus
Pre-diabetes - ANS ✔✔Diabetes mellitus
2 hour post-load plasma glucose in an oral glucose tolerance test greater than or equal to 200
mg/dL. The test uses a glucose load containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous glucose
dissolved in water.
Diabetes mellitus
Pre-diabetes - ANS ✔✔Diabetes mellitus
HgbA1c greater than or equal to 6.5%
COMPREHENSIVE STUDY GUIDE 2026/2027
Glucose Production & Release - ANS ✔✔-All cells in the body need energy to function
• primarily comes from glucose; a type of sugar found in carbohydrates.
-between meals, glucose stores in the liver are released into the bloodstream
• ensures a constant source of energy for the body
-After a meal, carbohydrates are digested & release glucose into the bloodstream
Insulin Release in Type I Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-As glucose levels in the blood rise, beta cells in the
pancreas are stimulated to release insulin
-Insulin halts the livers glucose release & initiates small amounts of glucose to be stored in the
liver for future use
-type 1 diabetes, pancreatic beta cells are damaged or destroyed
• damaged beta cells produce little to no insulin
Systemic Insulin and Glucose in Type I Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Insulin & glucose travel through the
bloodstream to reach cells throughout the body
-Due to diminished insulin production, patients with type 1 diabetes have a low insulin
concentration & high glucose (sugar) concentration in their blood
Glucose Absorption in Type I Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Insulin is required for glucose to enter cells &
be used as energy
-Once arriving at the intended cell, insulin binds to specialized receptors on the cell surface
• initiates glucose transporters to open & glucose to flow into the cell
-type 1 diabetes, low levels of insulin prevent adequate amounts of glucose from entering the
cell
• Because glucose remains in the bloodstream & is not used by the cell as energy, patients with
type 1 diabetes may experience fatigue, exhaustion, & dizziness
,Insulin Release in Type II Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-As glucose levels in the blood rise, beta cells in the
pancreas are stimulated to release insulin
-insulin halts the livers glucose release & initiates small amounts of glucose to be stored in the
liver for future use
-In type 2 diabetes, pancreatic beta cells become damaged or destroyed over time
• damaged beta cells produce little to no insulin.
Systemic Insulin and Glucose in Type II Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Insulin & glucose travel through the
bloodstream to reach cells throughout the body
-Insulin is required for glucose to enter cells & be used as energy
-In type 2 diabetes, insulin is not used properly & glucose remains in the bloodstream
• leads to high levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia).
Glucose Absorption in Type II Diabetes - ANS ✔✔-Once arriving at the intended cell, insulin
binds to specialized receptors on the cell surface
• initiates glucose transporters to open & glucose to flow into the cell
-type 2 diabetes, the body is resistant to the effects of insulin & does not properly bind to
insulin receptors
-Due to insulin resistance & resulting hyperglycemia, patients with type 2 diabetes may
experience increased thirst or hunger, fatigue, blurry vision, and slow-healing wounds
Hypothyroidism - ANS ✔✔-an underproduction of the hormone thyroxine (T4)
-When the thyroid produces too little thyroxine
• body's metabolism slows down
• wide array of effects on the body
-Hypothyroidism can cause:
• fatigue
,• depressed mood
• slow heart rate
• constipation
• weight gain
• irregular menstrual periods
-more common in women >60 & people who have a family hx of the condition
Hyperthyroidism - ANS ✔✔-an overproduction of thyroid hormones: triiodothyronine (T3), &
thyroxine (T4)
-When the thyroid produces too much T3 & T4
• metabolism increases
• can cause a wide variety of symptoms:
➣hand tremors
➣rapid heart rate
➣anxiety or irritability
➣frequent bowel movements
➣increased appetite
➣weight loss
➣infrequent menstrual periods
➣trouble sleeping
-more common in women & people who have a family hx of the condition
Negative Feedback Loop of HPA (hypothalamic pituitary axis) - ANS ✔✔
hpa - ANS ✔✔hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
, Diabetes Mellitus - ANS ✔✔-complex chronic disease
-one of the top ten causes of death in the United States
-considered the leading cause of kidney failure, nontraumatic limb amputation, new cases of
adult blindness, heart disease, & stroke
Acute symptoms of diabetes plus casual plasma glucose concentration greater than or equal to
200 mg/dL.
*Casual is defined as any time of day without regard to time since last meal. The classic
symptoms of diabetes are polyuria, polydipsia, and unexplained weight loss.
Diabetes mellitus
Pre-diabetes - ANS ✔✔Diabetes mellitus
Fasting plasma glucose greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL.
*Fasting is defined as no caloric intake for at least 8 hours.
Diabetes mellitus
Pre-diabetes - ANS ✔✔Diabetes mellitus
2 hour post-load plasma glucose in an oral glucose tolerance test greater than or equal to 200
mg/dL. The test uses a glucose load containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous glucose
dissolved in water.
Diabetes mellitus
Pre-diabetes - ANS ✔✔Diabetes mellitus
HgbA1c greater than or equal to 6.5%
