SAMENVATTING LITERATUUR WEEK 6
MILES, HUBERMAN & SALDANA
CHAPTER 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we describe fundamental methods for qualitative data analysis while data collection
progresses. They help organize data for later, deeper analyses. Some qualitative reserachers put primary
energy into data collection for a long time. We believe this is a mistake. It rules out the possibility of collecting
new data to fill in gaps or to test new hypotheses that question a field-worker’s routine assumptions. We
strongly advise analysis concurrent with data collection. It helps the fieldworker cycle back and forth between
thinking about the existing data and generating strategies for collecting new, often better, data.
DATA PROCESSING AND PREPARATION
We assume that the field-worker has collected information in the form of handwritten or typed field notes,
audio or video recordings of interviews. In all cases, we are focusing on words as the basic form in which the
data are found. We further assume that the basic, raw data must be processed before they are available for
analysis. Raw field notes may contain private abbreviations. They are also sketchy. Direct recordings of field
events also must be processed in some way. So we are focusing on words as the basic medium and are
assuming that the words involved have been refined from raw notes or recordings into a text that is clear to
the reader or analyst.
FIRST CYCLE CODES AND CODING
DESCRIPTION
Codes are labels that assign symbolic meaning to the descriptive or inferential information compiled during a
study. Codes usually are attached to data ‘chunks’ of varying size and can take the form of a straightforward,
descriptive label or a more evocative and complex one. Coding is analysis. We believe that coding is deep
reflection about and thus deep analysis and interpretation of the data’s meanings. Codes are primarily but not
exclusively, used to retrieve and categorize similar data chunks so the researcher can quickly find, pull out and
cluster the segments relating to a particular research question, hypothesis , construct or theme. Clustering and
the display of condensed chunks then set the stage for further analysis and drawing conclusions.
APPLICATIONS
As soon as the field researcher begins to compile information, challenges appear. A big one comes from the
multiplicity of data sources and forms. Some information comes from structured or informal observations.
More , if not most, comes from interviewing. All this information piles up geometrically. In early stages of a
study, most of it looks promising. But if you don’t know what matters more, everything matters. Conceptual
frameworks and research questions are the best defence against overload. They also reflect a point we made
earlier: that data collection is inescapably a selective process and that you cannot and do not ‘get is all’. But
selectivity does not , in itself , resolve the problem of overload. In fact, you need roughly 3-5 times as much
time for processing and ordering data as the time you needed to collect it. Codes are prompts or triggers for
deeper reflection on the data’s meaning. Coding is thus a data condensation task that enables you to retrieve
the most meaningful material. Coding is a heuristic – a method of discovery.
FIRST CYCLE CODING EXAMPLES
, First cycle coding methods are codes initially assigned to the data chunks. First cycle coding methods include up
to 25 different approaches, each one with a particular function or purpose. You do not need to stick with one
approach, some of these can be compatibly ‘mixed and matched’. First, there are three elemental methods
that serve as foundation approaches to coding: descriptive, in vivo and process coding
DESCRIPTIVE CODING
A descriptive code assigns labels to data to summarize in a word or short phrase – most often a noun- the
basic topic of a passage of qualitative data.
IN VIVO CODING
This is one of the most well-known qualitative coding methods. In vivo coding uses words or short phrases from
the participant’s own language in the data record as codes. It may include folk of indigenous terms of a
particular culture, subculture, or microculture to suggest the existence of the group ‘s cultural categories.
Phrases that are used repeatedly by participants are good lead.
PROCESS CODING
This coding method uses gerunds ( -ing words ) exclusively to connote observable and conceptual action in the
data. Processes also imply actions intertwined with the dynamics of time, such as things that emerge, change,
occur in particular sequences, or become strategically implemented.
EMOTION CODING
This method labels the emotions recalled and/or experienced by the participant or inferred by the researchers
about the participant. Emotion coding is particularly appropriate for studies that explore intrapersonal and
interpersonal participant experiences and actions. It also provides insight into the participants’ perspectives,
worldviews and life conditions.
VALUES CODING
This is the application of 3 different types of related codes onto qualitative data that reflect a participant’s
values, attitudes and beliefs, representing his or her perspectives on worldview. Value: the importance
we attribute to ourselves, another person, thing or idea. Attitude : the way we think and feel
about oneself, another person, thing of idea. Belief : part of a system that
includes values and attitudes, plus personal knowledge, experiences, opinions, prejudices, morals and other
interpretive perceptions of the social world.
EVALUATION CODING
This method applies primarily nonquantitative codes onto qualitative data that assign judgements about the
merit, worth or significance of programs or policy.
DRAMATURGICAL CODING
This method applies the terms and conventions of character, play scripts and production analysis onto
qualitative data. For character , these terms include items such as participant objectives ( OBJ ), conflicts (CON),
tactics ( TAC ), attitudes ( ATT), emotions ( EMO ), and subtexts ( SUB ). Dramaturgical coding is appropriate for
exploring intrapersonal and interpersonal participant experiences and actions in case studies, power
relationships and the processes of human motives and agency.
MILES, HUBERMAN & SALDANA
CHAPTER 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we describe fundamental methods for qualitative data analysis while data collection
progresses. They help organize data for later, deeper analyses. Some qualitative reserachers put primary
energy into data collection for a long time. We believe this is a mistake. It rules out the possibility of collecting
new data to fill in gaps or to test new hypotheses that question a field-worker’s routine assumptions. We
strongly advise analysis concurrent with data collection. It helps the fieldworker cycle back and forth between
thinking about the existing data and generating strategies for collecting new, often better, data.
DATA PROCESSING AND PREPARATION
We assume that the field-worker has collected information in the form of handwritten or typed field notes,
audio or video recordings of interviews. In all cases, we are focusing on words as the basic form in which the
data are found. We further assume that the basic, raw data must be processed before they are available for
analysis. Raw field notes may contain private abbreviations. They are also sketchy. Direct recordings of field
events also must be processed in some way. So we are focusing on words as the basic medium and are
assuming that the words involved have been refined from raw notes or recordings into a text that is clear to
the reader or analyst.
FIRST CYCLE CODES AND CODING
DESCRIPTION
Codes are labels that assign symbolic meaning to the descriptive or inferential information compiled during a
study. Codes usually are attached to data ‘chunks’ of varying size and can take the form of a straightforward,
descriptive label or a more evocative and complex one. Coding is analysis. We believe that coding is deep
reflection about and thus deep analysis and interpretation of the data’s meanings. Codes are primarily but not
exclusively, used to retrieve and categorize similar data chunks so the researcher can quickly find, pull out and
cluster the segments relating to a particular research question, hypothesis , construct or theme. Clustering and
the display of condensed chunks then set the stage for further analysis and drawing conclusions.
APPLICATIONS
As soon as the field researcher begins to compile information, challenges appear. A big one comes from the
multiplicity of data sources and forms. Some information comes from structured or informal observations.
More , if not most, comes from interviewing. All this information piles up geometrically. In early stages of a
study, most of it looks promising. But if you don’t know what matters more, everything matters. Conceptual
frameworks and research questions are the best defence against overload. They also reflect a point we made
earlier: that data collection is inescapably a selective process and that you cannot and do not ‘get is all’. But
selectivity does not , in itself , resolve the problem of overload. In fact, you need roughly 3-5 times as much
time for processing and ordering data as the time you needed to collect it. Codes are prompts or triggers for
deeper reflection on the data’s meaning. Coding is thus a data condensation task that enables you to retrieve
the most meaningful material. Coding is a heuristic – a method of discovery.
FIRST CYCLE CODING EXAMPLES
, First cycle coding methods are codes initially assigned to the data chunks. First cycle coding methods include up
to 25 different approaches, each one with a particular function or purpose. You do not need to stick with one
approach, some of these can be compatibly ‘mixed and matched’. First, there are three elemental methods
that serve as foundation approaches to coding: descriptive, in vivo and process coding
DESCRIPTIVE CODING
A descriptive code assigns labels to data to summarize in a word or short phrase – most often a noun- the
basic topic of a passage of qualitative data.
IN VIVO CODING
This is one of the most well-known qualitative coding methods. In vivo coding uses words or short phrases from
the participant’s own language in the data record as codes. It may include folk of indigenous terms of a
particular culture, subculture, or microculture to suggest the existence of the group ‘s cultural categories.
Phrases that are used repeatedly by participants are good lead.
PROCESS CODING
This coding method uses gerunds ( -ing words ) exclusively to connote observable and conceptual action in the
data. Processes also imply actions intertwined with the dynamics of time, such as things that emerge, change,
occur in particular sequences, or become strategically implemented.
EMOTION CODING
This method labels the emotions recalled and/or experienced by the participant or inferred by the researchers
about the participant. Emotion coding is particularly appropriate for studies that explore intrapersonal and
interpersonal participant experiences and actions. It also provides insight into the participants’ perspectives,
worldviews and life conditions.
VALUES CODING
This is the application of 3 different types of related codes onto qualitative data that reflect a participant’s
values, attitudes and beliefs, representing his or her perspectives on worldview. Value: the importance
we attribute to ourselves, another person, thing or idea. Attitude : the way we think and feel
about oneself, another person, thing of idea. Belief : part of a system that
includes values and attitudes, plus personal knowledge, experiences, opinions, prejudices, morals and other
interpretive perceptions of the social world.
EVALUATION CODING
This method applies primarily nonquantitative codes onto qualitative data that assign judgements about the
merit, worth or significance of programs or policy.
DRAMATURGICAL CODING
This method applies the terms and conventions of character, play scripts and production analysis onto
qualitative data. For character , these terms include items such as participant objectives ( OBJ ), conflicts (CON),
tactics ( TAC ), attitudes ( ATT), emotions ( EMO ), and subtexts ( SUB ). Dramaturgical coding is appropriate for
exploring intrapersonal and interpersonal participant experiences and actions in case studies, power
relationships and the processes of human motives and agency.
