1.8C Problem 2
Learning and Memory
Exposure to info doesn’t always mean you’ll learn it, yet alone remember it
Memory (2 definitions)- a) process of saving info for a period of time
b) particular part of human memory system acquired information is “located”
Storage- process of “putting” new information in memory
Encoding- as people store info in memory, modify it in some way to help store
information more easily
May involve: - changing form of the information
- Adding to new information using pre-existing knowledge
- Simplifying new information eg. remembering gist of situ instead of
specific sequence of events
Retrieval- process by which people “find” information they’ve previously stored
Alternative hypothesis: information retrieval is occurring but not resulting in
behaviour change
Control processes- cognitive processes that different affect memory’s functioning
Dual-Store Model of Memory
James (19th century): human memory has three components
1. After-image
2. Primary memory
3. Secondary memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (20th century): Dual Store Model: three-component model (similar to
James)
Called Dual Store model as claims working memory & long-term memory are
distinctly different
Eg. Emails: discard some as soon as seem them= input lost at the sensory register
Deal with some for a short time then forget them= input lost at working memory
Some important ones filed= input into long-term memory
Memory Capacity Forms of Storage Duration
Compartment
Characteristics
Sensory Register Very large Stored in same form it’s Brief time, but exact
Eg. 6 months old been sensed: time is unknown
remember much of what Visual= visual form etc.
they see -info before any
significant encoding
Working Memory Limited but impossible to Most in auditory form Short <30sec
know in terms of specific
discrete items held
simultaneously
Long-Term Memory Unlimited- more room The general gist of Very long. Can
than ever needed things: Via many ways: relearn learnt but
language, sensory forgotten info quicker
, images, nonverbal than if never learnt
abstractions
Sensory Register (anything sensed)
o Duration study: Sterling- three rows of 4 letters and digits presented to
participants for fraction of a second
Asked to recall either one particular row or all twelve
symbols
Results: recall one row with 76% accuracy
Recall all 12 symbols with 36% accuracy
Explanation: most symbols stored initially but fade from
memory before reporting them
o Duration of complete visual stimulus <1 second (parts for 2 seconds),
longer if no new visual stimulus
Duration of auditory info >2 seconds
Lasts longer with louder stimuli
Explanation: major source of auditory input can be understood only
within sequential context, so need duration to understand speech
o Disappearance explanation:
1. Interference- new info coming in replaces (hence erases) already
existing information
2. Unimportant information got rid of
Moving info to Working Memory: Role of Attention
Must pay attention to info to move it from sensory register to working memory
Select only certain inputs to pay attention to; only
info we pay attention to moves to working memory,
rest is lost
Can pay attention to particular stimulus but miss important aspects
Especially if complex stimuli
o Factors Influencing Attention
Some stimuli draw attention more than others
Motion- moving objects- - - - > more than still ones ->
Size- LARGE sizing
Intensity- more intense (Eg. bright colours, noises)
Novelty- novel or unusual
Incongruity-objects/things that don’t make sense
Social cues- others reacting to something
Emotion- strong emotional associations
Personal significance- captures and maintains attention (previous
factors don’t maintain)
o Nature of Attention
Can focus attention in at least one sensory modality (hearing)
without physically orientating self in that direction
Eg. can listen to someone speaking infront of you without aiming
ears at them
Cocktail party phenomenon- ability to attend to one spoken
message while ignoring others
Study with technique shadowing- pear wears earphones to listen
to two simultaneously spoken messages, and is asked to repeat of
one them
Results: can repeat one of messages easily if speakers have:
Different voices
Talking on different topics
Presenting messages from different directions
Harder to repeat a message if: voices, topics, or
locations of speaker are similar
Theories of auditory attention:
It’s like a filter- listener uses physical characteristics to
select one message and screen out others
Learning and Memory
Exposure to info doesn’t always mean you’ll learn it, yet alone remember it
Memory (2 definitions)- a) process of saving info for a period of time
b) particular part of human memory system acquired information is “located”
Storage- process of “putting” new information in memory
Encoding- as people store info in memory, modify it in some way to help store
information more easily
May involve: - changing form of the information
- Adding to new information using pre-existing knowledge
- Simplifying new information eg. remembering gist of situ instead of
specific sequence of events
Retrieval- process by which people “find” information they’ve previously stored
Alternative hypothesis: information retrieval is occurring but not resulting in
behaviour change
Control processes- cognitive processes that different affect memory’s functioning
Dual-Store Model of Memory
James (19th century): human memory has three components
1. After-image
2. Primary memory
3. Secondary memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (20th century): Dual Store Model: three-component model (similar to
James)
Called Dual Store model as claims working memory & long-term memory are
distinctly different
Eg. Emails: discard some as soon as seem them= input lost at the sensory register
Deal with some for a short time then forget them= input lost at working memory
Some important ones filed= input into long-term memory
Memory Capacity Forms of Storage Duration
Compartment
Characteristics
Sensory Register Very large Stored in same form it’s Brief time, but exact
Eg. 6 months old been sensed: time is unknown
remember much of what Visual= visual form etc.
they see -info before any
significant encoding
Working Memory Limited but impossible to Most in auditory form Short <30sec
know in terms of specific
discrete items held
simultaneously
Long-Term Memory Unlimited- more room The general gist of Very long. Can
than ever needed things: Via many ways: relearn learnt but
language, sensory forgotten info quicker
, images, nonverbal than if never learnt
abstractions
Sensory Register (anything sensed)
o Duration study: Sterling- three rows of 4 letters and digits presented to
participants for fraction of a second
Asked to recall either one particular row or all twelve
symbols
Results: recall one row with 76% accuracy
Recall all 12 symbols with 36% accuracy
Explanation: most symbols stored initially but fade from
memory before reporting them
o Duration of complete visual stimulus <1 second (parts for 2 seconds),
longer if no new visual stimulus
Duration of auditory info >2 seconds
Lasts longer with louder stimuli
Explanation: major source of auditory input can be understood only
within sequential context, so need duration to understand speech
o Disappearance explanation:
1. Interference- new info coming in replaces (hence erases) already
existing information
2. Unimportant information got rid of
Moving info to Working Memory: Role of Attention
Must pay attention to info to move it from sensory register to working memory
Select only certain inputs to pay attention to; only
info we pay attention to moves to working memory,
rest is lost
Can pay attention to particular stimulus but miss important aspects
Especially if complex stimuli
o Factors Influencing Attention
Some stimuli draw attention more than others
Motion- moving objects- - - - > more than still ones ->
Size- LARGE sizing
Intensity- more intense (Eg. bright colours, noises)
Novelty- novel or unusual
Incongruity-objects/things that don’t make sense
Social cues- others reacting to something
Emotion- strong emotional associations
Personal significance- captures and maintains attention (previous
factors don’t maintain)
o Nature of Attention
Can focus attention in at least one sensory modality (hearing)
without physically orientating self in that direction
Eg. can listen to someone speaking infront of you without aiming
ears at them
Cocktail party phenomenon- ability to attend to one spoken
message while ignoring others
Study with technique shadowing- pear wears earphones to listen
to two simultaneously spoken messages, and is asked to repeat of
one them
Results: can repeat one of messages easily if speakers have:
Different voices
Talking on different topics
Presenting messages from different directions
Harder to repeat a message if: voices, topics, or
locations of speaker are similar
Theories of auditory attention:
It’s like a filter- listener uses physical characteristics to
select one message and screen out others
