HCR 240 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY EXAM 2 | QUESTIONS & ANSWERS | 2026 LATEST
UPDATED| GET A+
1. What are the core functions of the sympathetic nervous system?: "Fight or flight" responses: increases heart
rate, dilates bronchi, inhibits digestion, dilates pupils.
2. What are the core functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?: "Rest and digest": slows heart rate,
stimulates digestion, constricts pupils, conserves energy.
3. Alpha receptor of sympathetic nervous system: α1 ’vasoconstriction 4. Beta receptor of sympathetic nervous
system: β1 ’HR‘ β2 ’bronchodilation.
5. What are the major receptor-level effects of the parasympathetic nervous
system?: Muscarinic receptors (activation by acetylcholine): slow HR, stimulate digestion, contract bladder, constrict
pupils.
6. Define nociception.: The sensory process that detects harmful or potentially harmful stimuli (pain perception).
7. What are the four phases of nociception?: Transduction Transmission ’ Perception ’ Modula-’ tion.
8. Pain threshold: point at which stimulus is perceived as pain
9. Pain tolerance: maximum pain a person can endure.
10. What are the mechanisms of heat loss?: Radiation, conduction, convection (air), evaporation, and
respiration.
11. What part of the brain controls tight regulation of body temperature?: Hypothalamus.
12. What is the difference between hyperthermia and fever?: Hyperthermia = uncon-
, trolled rise in body temp (thermoregulation fails). Fever = controlled increase in hypothalamic set point due to
pyrogens.
13. What are the types of accidental hyperthermia?: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat
stroke, malignant hyperthermia
14. Accidental hypothermia: environmental exposure
15. Therapeutic hypothermia: medically induced for neuroprotection post-cardiac arrest.
16. What are key concepts in rewarming hypothermia?: Avoid rapid rewarming, prevent arrhythmias,
manage electrolytes, monitor core temperature.
17. REM sleep: rapid eye movement, dreaming, muscle atonia 18 NREM sleep: deeper, restorative sleep,
stages 1-3.
19 What are the levels of consciousness?: Alert Lethargic ’ Obtunded ’ Stupor ’ Coma ’ Deep coma.’
20 What is acute encephalopathy?: Rapid-onset brain dysfunction, often reversible
21 Acute encephalopathy caused by: metabolic, infectious, toxic insults, hypoxia (O2 deprivation)
22 Delirium: sudden onset, fluctuating consciousness; waxing and waning, inattention, reversible 23.
Dementia: gradual onset, progressive cognitive decline, irreversible
24. What is the most common type of dementia?: Alzheimer's disease.
25. What is the hallmark sign of delirium?: Fluctuating attention and confusion.
26. What is a seizure?: Abnormal, excessive neuronal activity in the brain; can be focal (one area) or
generalized (all).
UPDATED| GET A+
1. What are the core functions of the sympathetic nervous system?: "Fight or flight" responses: increases heart
rate, dilates bronchi, inhibits digestion, dilates pupils.
2. What are the core functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?: "Rest and digest": slows heart rate,
stimulates digestion, constricts pupils, conserves energy.
3. Alpha receptor of sympathetic nervous system: α1 ’vasoconstriction 4. Beta receptor of sympathetic nervous
system: β1 ’HR‘ β2 ’bronchodilation.
5. What are the major receptor-level effects of the parasympathetic nervous
system?: Muscarinic receptors (activation by acetylcholine): slow HR, stimulate digestion, contract bladder, constrict
pupils.
6. Define nociception.: The sensory process that detects harmful or potentially harmful stimuli (pain perception).
7. What are the four phases of nociception?: Transduction Transmission ’ Perception ’ Modula-’ tion.
8. Pain threshold: point at which stimulus is perceived as pain
9. Pain tolerance: maximum pain a person can endure.
10. What are the mechanisms of heat loss?: Radiation, conduction, convection (air), evaporation, and
respiration.
11. What part of the brain controls tight regulation of body temperature?: Hypothalamus.
12. What is the difference between hyperthermia and fever?: Hyperthermia = uncon-
, trolled rise in body temp (thermoregulation fails). Fever = controlled increase in hypothalamic set point due to
pyrogens.
13. What are the types of accidental hyperthermia?: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat
stroke, malignant hyperthermia
14. Accidental hypothermia: environmental exposure
15. Therapeutic hypothermia: medically induced for neuroprotection post-cardiac arrest.
16. What are key concepts in rewarming hypothermia?: Avoid rapid rewarming, prevent arrhythmias,
manage electrolytes, monitor core temperature.
17. REM sleep: rapid eye movement, dreaming, muscle atonia 18 NREM sleep: deeper, restorative sleep,
stages 1-3.
19 What are the levels of consciousness?: Alert Lethargic ’ Obtunded ’ Stupor ’ Coma ’ Deep coma.’
20 What is acute encephalopathy?: Rapid-onset brain dysfunction, often reversible
21 Acute encephalopathy caused by: metabolic, infectious, toxic insults, hypoxia (O2 deprivation)
22 Delirium: sudden onset, fluctuating consciousness; waxing and waning, inattention, reversible 23.
Dementia: gradual onset, progressive cognitive decline, irreversible
24. What is the most common type of dementia?: Alzheimer's disease.
25. What is the hallmark sign of delirium?: Fluctuating attention and confusion.
26. What is a seizure?: Abnormal, excessive neuronal activity in the brain; can be focal (one area) or
generalized (all).
