Linguistics 3 – Key terms
Pragmatics: The way people use context and other information that can be included,
in order to understand language. It is also the study of ‘invisible meaning’ and how we
recognize what is meant even when it is not spoken or written.
Cooperative principle: People work together in order to advance their conversation,
like an invisible agreement. Its thus achieving effective communication in various social
situations.
Speech act: ‘’When we say or write something, we are performing an action. This
action expressed in words is a speech act’’ (Nelson & Greenbaum, 2016, p. 127). The
communication purpose thus depends on the particular context of the act. There are two
categories:
Direct versus indirect speech act
Direct speech act Indirect speech act
an action in which the forum used directly an action in which the form used
matches the function performed by a does not directly much the function
speaker with an utterance, in contrast to an performed by a speaker with an utterance in
indirect speech act. contrast to a direct speech act
E.g. ‘’You ate the last slice of pizza.’’ E.g. ‘’You left the door open.’’
Structure: Declarative Structure: Declarative
Function: Statement (you ate the last slice) Function: Request (to close the door)
Active versus passive sentences
Active Passive
When a sentence is written in the active voice, When a sentence is written in the passive voice,
the subject performs the actions. Active the subject in the sentence is the recipient of
sentences use a transitive verb, and only a verb’s action. Passive sentences use a
makes sense if there is an object it can refer intransitive verb, and the sentences makes
to. sense without an object it can refer to.
E.g. Charles Dickens wrote many novels. E.g. Many novels were written by Charles
Dickens.
Prescriptive versus descriptive approach
Prescriptive approach Descriptive approach
Old-style prescriptive rules that were made Involves structural analysis: investigates the
for English, prescribing what people should distribution of forms in a language, and helps
do and not do. categorizing grammatical categories (e.g. noun,
adjective, noun phrase (NP), adverb phrase
, E.g. You must not split an infinitive. (AdvP) etc). It is influenced by the Latin
E.g. You must not end a sentence with a grammar, and thus describes what is done and
preposition. how it is used.
E.g. Never begin a sentence with a
coordinating conjunction (fanboy). E.g. I’m wanting a new fridge, I’m needing a
new coat, It’s concerning me a lot.
Let’s break the prescriptive rules: Descriptive: Stative verbs are
And who did you go to the party with? increasingly used in the progressive
=> Preposition at the end. (continuous) form
E.g. I want a new fridge, I need a new coat, it
concerns me a lot.
Stative verbs should only be used in
the simple form
Surface vs deep structure, and structural ambiguity
Surface structure Deep structure
The different syntactic forms (active and An abstract level of structural organization in
passive) sentences in English individually have. which all the elements determining structural
interpretation are represented.
E.g. The difference between:
Charlie broke the window => Active E.g. Basis components => NP + verb + NP
The window was broken by Charlie => Passive
Note: A single surface structure can
have different deep structures.
Structural ambiguity
Two distinct underlying interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep structure.
E.g. Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella.
=> Who had the umbrella, Annie or the man? => Structural ambuigity
It often has to do with the Direct Object (DO) that optionally may have the function of an
Adverbial (A) as well as Direct Object (DO).
The functionalities of grammar
Identifying a sentence Example
Form: The correct tense, grammatical terms ‘’Daddy’s sulking because he never came up
Function: The correct rule, tendencies with a good Bernie meme.’’
Use: What does it convey in that specific
situation? Form: Present Continuous
Voice: Active or passive Function: An action happening at the
moment of speaking.
Use: To explain what the dad is doing.
Voice: Active
Pragmatics: The way people use context and other information that can be included,
in order to understand language. It is also the study of ‘invisible meaning’ and how we
recognize what is meant even when it is not spoken or written.
Cooperative principle: People work together in order to advance their conversation,
like an invisible agreement. Its thus achieving effective communication in various social
situations.
Speech act: ‘’When we say or write something, we are performing an action. This
action expressed in words is a speech act’’ (Nelson & Greenbaum, 2016, p. 127). The
communication purpose thus depends on the particular context of the act. There are two
categories:
Direct versus indirect speech act
Direct speech act Indirect speech act
an action in which the forum used directly an action in which the form used
matches the function performed by a does not directly much the function
speaker with an utterance, in contrast to an performed by a speaker with an utterance in
indirect speech act. contrast to a direct speech act
E.g. ‘’You ate the last slice of pizza.’’ E.g. ‘’You left the door open.’’
Structure: Declarative Structure: Declarative
Function: Statement (you ate the last slice) Function: Request (to close the door)
Active versus passive sentences
Active Passive
When a sentence is written in the active voice, When a sentence is written in the passive voice,
the subject performs the actions. Active the subject in the sentence is the recipient of
sentences use a transitive verb, and only a verb’s action. Passive sentences use a
makes sense if there is an object it can refer intransitive verb, and the sentences makes
to. sense without an object it can refer to.
E.g. Charles Dickens wrote many novels. E.g. Many novels were written by Charles
Dickens.
Prescriptive versus descriptive approach
Prescriptive approach Descriptive approach
Old-style prescriptive rules that were made Involves structural analysis: investigates the
for English, prescribing what people should distribution of forms in a language, and helps
do and not do. categorizing grammatical categories (e.g. noun,
adjective, noun phrase (NP), adverb phrase
, E.g. You must not split an infinitive. (AdvP) etc). It is influenced by the Latin
E.g. You must not end a sentence with a grammar, and thus describes what is done and
preposition. how it is used.
E.g. Never begin a sentence with a
coordinating conjunction (fanboy). E.g. I’m wanting a new fridge, I’m needing a
new coat, It’s concerning me a lot.
Let’s break the prescriptive rules: Descriptive: Stative verbs are
And who did you go to the party with? increasingly used in the progressive
=> Preposition at the end. (continuous) form
E.g. I want a new fridge, I need a new coat, it
concerns me a lot.
Stative verbs should only be used in
the simple form
Surface vs deep structure, and structural ambiguity
Surface structure Deep structure
The different syntactic forms (active and An abstract level of structural organization in
passive) sentences in English individually have. which all the elements determining structural
interpretation are represented.
E.g. The difference between:
Charlie broke the window => Active E.g. Basis components => NP + verb + NP
The window was broken by Charlie => Passive
Note: A single surface structure can
have different deep structures.
Structural ambiguity
Two distinct underlying interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep structure.
E.g. Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella.
=> Who had the umbrella, Annie or the man? => Structural ambuigity
It often has to do with the Direct Object (DO) that optionally may have the function of an
Adverbial (A) as well as Direct Object (DO).
The functionalities of grammar
Identifying a sentence Example
Form: The correct tense, grammatical terms ‘’Daddy’s sulking because he never came up
Function: The correct rule, tendencies with a good Bernie meme.’’
Use: What does it convey in that specific
situation? Form: Present Continuous
Voice: Active or passive Function: An action happening at the
moment of speaking.
Use: To explain what the dad is doing.
Voice: Active
