Regulation of Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems
Through the detection of stimuli, and the production of the befitting response, accompanied
with the assistance of hormones, and nervous impulses, our bodies have influence over the diverse
proceedings that occur in various tissues and organs located in the human body.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS), is identified as a coordination centre, that comprises the
brain and the spinal cord. This system aids the human body in terms of coordinating their behaviour
and reacting to their immediate environment.
The brain, located in the skull, is established from the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the
brain stem. The brain is accountable for regulating thought processes, memories, emotions, the
movement of muscles, involuntary actions, and many more.
The spinal cord is a long extension of the brain stem, that transmits and acquires information
between the brain and the remainder of the body.
The central nervous system receives information from the peripheral nervous systems (PNS).
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is composed of nerves, and ganglia. Ganglia can be identified
as a network of nerve cells, conjoined by synapses, found outside the brain and spinal cord.
Furthermore, it comprises of the autonomic nervous system, and the sensory-somatic system.
The peripheral nervous system accumulates all vital information that has been acquired from
the environment, and sends it to the central nervous system, which processes the information, and
gathers a response.
https://www.aviva.co.uk/library/images/med_encyclopedia/cfhg460nersy1_001.gif
1
,Reflex Arc
A passage way that regulates the reflex action is identified as a reflex arc. For instance, if an
individual touch a scorching object. We can identify this as the stimulus, an object or substance that
causes and encourages a given response. This can be both internal and external. Concerning this case,
we are dealing with external stimuli, which has the ability to produce a fight or flight response. When
an organism has the capability to be receptive to external stimuli, that is known as sensitivity.
Receptors in the skin detect stimuli. The skin contains a receptor known as a
mechanoreceptor. They enable us to detect touch. So, when the individuals hand touches the hot
object, this would stimulate the mechanoreceptors, due to the sudden pressure.
The type of receptors that would detect the heat from the object are known as thermoreceptors and
cutaneous mechanoreceptors (C.M), which are also located in the skin. While the C.M can detect heat,
thermoreceptors can detect a change in temperature. Especially in the hand, as it has much more
thermoreceptors compared to other body parts, making it more sensitive.
Nervous impulses are sent to the sensory neurones. Sensory Neurones are found outside the
Central Nervous System (CNS), and the impulses are from the receptors. “A nervous impulse is an
electrical signal that travels along the axon”. (whoami. science.2016). Electrical signals are fast, rapid,
and immediate. Furthermore, they are formed by the movement of positively charged metal ions, in
and out of nerve cells. (Frances. A, et al, 2016)
Sensory neurons then reconstruct the external stimuli into an electrical impulse, and travels
to the relay neurone, located in the central nervous system, via the synapse.
The Central Nervous System acquires and absorbs the information from the Sensory Neurons, and
determines the necessary steps needed to deal with the matter. The Central Nervous System (CNS)
dispatches the information to the muscles onwards to the motor neurons.
The motor neurons carry electrical signals to the muscles, (the effector). Effectors consist of
muscles and glands. They respond to impulses and bring about change. The muscles in the palm and
forearm then contract in response to the nervous impulse. The hand flinches away.
http://physiologyplus.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Spinal-Relfex-Arc.png
2
, Neurons
Neurons are differentiated cells that gain, process, and relay information through electrical
and chemical signals, via a junction known as synapse.
Two types of neurons that have been identified are
i. Sensory Neurones
ii. Motor Neurones
Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons are a part of the somatic and autonomic nervous system and are situated in
the dorsal ganglia of the spinal cord. The sensory neurons receive information from the receptors, that
have been gathered from one of the five senses, touch, smell, sight, hearing, or taste. This information
is then transported in the form of electrical impulses to the central nervous system.
http://leavingbio.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/sensory-neuron.jpg
Sensory neurons play a crucial role in the functional capability of the respiratory system, in terms of
ventilation, as this system is affected by the stimuli that is acquired from three subunits of sensory
neurons.
i. Central chemoreceptors
ii. Peripheral chemoreceptors
iii. Stretch receptors
Central Chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors have been observed in the medulla oblongata of the brain. Carbon
dioxide from the plasma is secreted into the cerebrospinal fluid, a colourless fluid located in the brain
and the spinal cord.
In response, the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid declines, and as a result, becomes more acidic.
To counteract this, the central chemoreceptors expand the inspiratory rate, via the stimulation of the
respiratory centre. When the inspiratory rate rises, more carbon dioxide is expelled from the body.
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Observed in the walls of carotid arteries, and the walls of the aortic arch, peripheral
chemoreceptors assist in the supervision of the chemistry of blood. If the amount of pH, or carbon
dioxide where to increase in the body, the peripheral chemoreceptors will immediately go through the
process of stimulating the respiratory centre. This response is also repeated if the levels of oxygen
decreases in the body. In addition, they facilitate the maintenance of cardio-respiratory homeostasis.
3
Through the detection of stimuli, and the production of the befitting response, accompanied
with the assistance of hormones, and nervous impulses, our bodies have influence over the diverse
proceedings that occur in various tissues and organs located in the human body.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS), is identified as a coordination centre, that comprises the
brain and the spinal cord. This system aids the human body in terms of coordinating their behaviour
and reacting to their immediate environment.
The brain, located in the skull, is established from the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the
brain stem. The brain is accountable for regulating thought processes, memories, emotions, the
movement of muscles, involuntary actions, and many more.
The spinal cord is a long extension of the brain stem, that transmits and acquires information
between the brain and the remainder of the body.
The central nervous system receives information from the peripheral nervous systems (PNS).
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is composed of nerves, and ganglia. Ganglia can be identified
as a network of nerve cells, conjoined by synapses, found outside the brain and spinal cord.
Furthermore, it comprises of the autonomic nervous system, and the sensory-somatic system.
The peripheral nervous system accumulates all vital information that has been acquired from
the environment, and sends it to the central nervous system, which processes the information, and
gathers a response.
https://www.aviva.co.uk/library/images/med_encyclopedia/cfhg460nersy1_001.gif
1
,Reflex Arc
A passage way that regulates the reflex action is identified as a reflex arc. For instance, if an
individual touch a scorching object. We can identify this as the stimulus, an object or substance that
causes and encourages a given response. This can be both internal and external. Concerning this case,
we are dealing with external stimuli, which has the ability to produce a fight or flight response. When
an organism has the capability to be receptive to external stimuli, that is known as sensitivity.
Receptors in the skin detect stimuli. The skin contains a receptor known as a
mechanoreceptor. They enable us to detect touch. So, when the individuals hand touches the hot
object, this would stimulate the mechanoreceptors, due to the sudden pressure.
The type of receptors that would detect the heat from the object are known as thermoreceptors and
cutaneous mechanoreceptors (C.M), which are also located in the skin. While the C.M can detect heat,
thermoreceptors can detect a change in temperature. Especially in the hand, as it has much more
thermoreceptors compared to other body parts, making it more sensitive.
Nervous impulses are sent to the sensory neurones. Sensory Neurones are found outside the
Central Nervous System (CNS), and the impulses are from the receptors. “A nervous impulse is an
electrical signal that travels along the axon”. (whoami. science.2016). Electrical signals are fast, rapid,
and immediate. Furthermore, they are formed by the movement of positively charged metal ions, in
and out of nerve cells. (Frances. A, et al, 2016)
Sensory neurons then reconstruct the external stimuli into an electrical impulse, and travels
to the relay neurone, located in the central nervous system, via the synapse.
The Central Nervous System acquires and absorbs the information from the Sensory Neurons, and
determines the necessary steps needed to deal with the matter. The Central Nervous System (CNS)
dispatches the information to the muscles onwards to the motor neurons.
The motor neurons carry electrical signals to the muscles, (the effector). Effectors consist of
muscles and glands. They respond to impulses and bring about change. The muscles in the palm and
forearm then contract in response to the nervous impulse. The hand flinches away.
http://physiologyplus.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Spinal-Relfex-Arc.png
2
, Neurons
Neurons are differentiated cells that gain, process, and relay information through electrical
and chemical signals, via a junction known as synapse.
Two types of neurons that have been identified are
i. Sensory Neurones
ii. Motor Neurones
Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons are a part of the somatic and autonomic nervous system and are situated in
the dorsal ganglia of the spinal cord. The sensory neurons receive information from the receptors, that
have been gathered from one of the five senses, touch, smell, sight, hearing, or taste. This information
is then transported in the form of electrical impulses to the central nervous system.
http://leavingbio.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/sensory-neuron.jpg
Sensory neurons play a crucial role in the functional capability of the respiratory system, in terms of
ventilation, as this system is affected by the stimuli that is acquired from three subunits of sensory
neurons.
i. Central chemoreceptors
ii. Peripheral chemoreceptors
iii. Stretch receptors
Central Chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors have been observed in the medulla oblongata of the brain. Carbon
dioxide from the plasma is secreted into the cerebrospinal fluid, a colourless fluid located in the brain
and the spinal cord.
In response, the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid declines, and as a result, becomes more acidic.
To counteract this, the central chemoreceptors expand the inspiratory rate, via the stimulation of the
respiratory centre. When the inspiratory rate rises, more carbon dioxide is expelled from the body.
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Observed in the walls of carotid arteries, and the walls of the aortic arch, peripheral
chemoreceptors assist in the supervision of the chemistry of blood. If the amount of pH, or carbon
dioxide where to increase in the body, the peripheral chemoreceptors will immediately go through the
process of stimulating the respiratory centre. This response is also repeated if the levels of oxygen
decreases in the body. In addition, they facilitate the maintenance of cardio-respiratory homeostasis.
3
