Why does radicalism emerge?
#
1790s 1815 Significance
The French Revolution (1789-99) • Key in directing anger
William Cobbett, Weekly Political Register towards the upper classes,
• inspired people in Britain (c1802) spreading radical ideas
• introduced new, key revolutionary ideas; • sold for just 2 shillings, was read by and generating support for
popular sovereignty and constitutionalism thousands the movement.
Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man (1791-92) • key in politicising and radicalising the lower • Dependent upon economic
Individuals & • defended the actions of French classes misery and government
intervention e.g. Cobbett’s
Movements revolutionaries and the ideas behind it • directed anger and discontent (as a result of influence was at it’s peak
evidence: ROM Part II sold over 200,000 economic misery) towards the upper classes during the harsh winter of
copies Henry ‘Orator’ Hunt 1816-17, following a poor
• was sold cheaply making it accessible to all • his fiery, captivating speeches drew the harvest and bread prices
• read aloud to crowds being at an all time high
attention of thousands (use of the mass (“I defy you to agitate any
*political debate was no longer limited to the platform) fellow with a full
propertied classes; radical ideas spread among evidence: major demonstrations such as Peterloo stomach”).
lower classes 1819 (50,000) and Spa Fields 1816 (10,000)
The French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
• put economic strain on Britain End of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) • Source/ root cause
• there were food shortages in many parts of • saw mass unemployment; return of 300,000 of political
England in the summer of 1795 soldiers and factories laying off workers discontent.
*Economic misery (reduced demand for manufacture of • Is exacerbated by
*caused economic misery, source of agitation
and political discontent weaponry and uniforms) government
evidence: the attack on King George III’s coach *cannot afford basic necessities, is exacerbated intervention and
on 29 October 1795, where angry mobsters by government action utilised by radicals
called for ‘peace’ and ‘bread’
The National Budget, Taxation (1815) • Exacerbates the
Government do not actively agitate the people; • abolished income tax system and introduced economic situation
Pitt’s government is reactionary (people want indirect tax • Government reaction is
to reform pre-existing laws that only utilised by radicals to
• put tax on everyday items (sugar, tea, tobacco, generate support
Government enfranchise aristocracy) soap, candles, beer) • Only really has impact in
Intervention The Corn Laws (1815) emergence of the second
• imposed tariffs on foreign wheat and banned radical wave; the first
imports until the price of wheat reached 80 wave is not provoked by
shillings quarter (equivalent to £290 today) government intervention
*disproprtionate effect on the poor, further (perhaps a lack of
instead).
impoverished the lower classes
, How much of a threat did radicals pose?
#
1790s 1815 Significance
Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man (1791-92) William Cobbett, Weekly Political Register (c1802) • There is definitely success in the
• ROM Part II sold over 200,000 copies • sold for 1 shilling, was read by thousands sense that ideas of radicalism are
• circulation of 4,000 in 1805 spreading throughout the country
• was sold cheaply making it accessible to all, read aloud • due to tax, he sold one sheet for just 2 pence, making it accessible
and that the w/c are able to
to crowds to w/c readers access these ideas.
Radical success *political debate was no longer limited to the propertied (ceased publication by 1817, Cobbett fled to USA) • There is a threat to the system of
classes; radical ideas spread among lower classes Mass demonstrations hereditary power and the
(evidence of London Corresponding Society (1792-93) • Spa Fields 1816; 10,000 attended (Henry Hunt) aristocracy.
• Pentrich Rising 1817; march of 300 men
threat) peaceful methods; used pamphlets and petitions
• St Peter’s Fields 1819; 80,000 gathered (largest crowd in Britain’s
• Idea that radical success must
have been perceived as a threat,
• 3,000 members at peak history) - dubbed Peterloo Massacre since government intervene.
• in 1793, it had support of 6,000 in signing of a petition John Cartwright, Hampden Clubs (c1812) • Idea that the climate for
• experience some success in early years, unable to act effectively revolution escalates both the
after 1817 due to infiltration of spies causing arrests of members. actual threat of radicals and the
perceived threat.
Suspension of Habeas Corpus (twice in 1794) and Trials of Spa Fields (1816) • Overall the use of
LCS leaders (1794) Lord Mayor of London’s constables dispersed rioters and arrested their government spies and agent
leader (coup failed); due to agent provocateur, Castle. provocateur were key in
• 13 members of the LCS were tried for treason; defendants Pentrich Rising (1817)
were acquitted but most leaders (incl. Thomas Hardy) Government utilised agent provocateur, Oliver, and a regiment of soldiers dissolving radical protests
withdrew from radical politics. (made it almost impossible
*Overarching Treason Act and Seditious Meetings Act (1795)
intercepted the rebel marchers, resulting in 80 arrests.14 were transported
and 3 men were hanged and publicly beheaded. for radicals to outwit the
governmental • made treason written or spoken (to restrict publications The Gagging Acts (1817)
• made the Treason and Seditious Meetings Acts permanent, suspended •
forces of order).
like ROM and protest pamphlets) and banned public Although it must be true that
power (evidence meetings over 50 people
habeas corpus
Quelled unrest in short term (esp. in London) but after terms lapsed in
the government felt
exaggerated) As a result radical activity diminished (events like 1818 radical activity sprang up once more. threatened by the radicals as
they decided to implement
Copenhagen fields and the attack on the king’s coach did not Peterloo (1819) '
reoccur) Sense of panic, yeomanry dispersed crowd and arrested Hunt, results in 11 laws and spy systems to deal
dead and over 500 injured with them, the actual threat
Stamp Tax (1797) and the Newspaper Regulation Act (1798)
The Six Acts (1819), in response to Peterloo
• made newspapers less affordable and limited ability of was much lower (the
• Unlawful Drilling Act - banned unlawful military style drilling
newspapers to publish critical articles • Seizure of Arms Act - magistrates could enter any property upon government’s perceived
suspicion of arms being kept threat of the radicals was
The French Revolution (1789-99) • Misdemeanours Act - those arrested were unlikely to be granted bail exacerbated by the fear of
• inspired people in Britain • Seditious Meetings Prevention Act - revived terms of 1795 and 1817 the French Revolution).
• introduced new, key revolutionary ideas; popular acts (which has been allowed to lapse) - is eventually repealed in • Fact of the matter is, the
sovereignty and constitutionalism 1824.
radicals are easily squashed
Climate for The French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
Newspapers and Stamp Duties Act (1819)
• raised price of stamp duty and increased number of newspapers which by government forces every
revolution • put economic strain on Britain had to pay it - reduce number of newspapers and pamphlets that could single time they attempt/ask
• there were food shortages in many parts of England in be published profitably for reform.
(evidence of the summer of 1795 End of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) • Contributes to perceived
‘potential’ threat) *caused economic misery, source of agitation and political • saw mass unemployment; return of 300,000 soldiers
threat of the radicals
discontent and factories laying off workers (reduced demand for • Increases support for
evidence: the attack on King George III’s coach on 29 manufacture of weaponry and uniforms)
October 1795, where angry mobsters called for ‘peace’ and radicals; when economy
*cannot afford basic necessities, is exacerbated by recovers during 1800s
‘bread’
government action (Corn Laws, Indirect Tax) radical activity dissipates.
, Why did radicalism fail?
#
Point, Evidence, Explanation Significance
• No national figures able or prepared to take position as leader: Cobbett’ role as a journalist and propagandist, Even with more unity
Henry Hunt as powerful orator (both not equipped to be leaders of a national movement).
and a clear leader, it is
Weakness of • Reformers were divided in whether to use moral force (persuasion) or physical force (violence) - lack of unified
unlikely that the
strategy and aims e.g. Cobbett using media, LCS using petitions and pamphlets vs mass demonstrations, Hunt
Radicals almost suggesting physical force at Spa Fields 1816. radicals would have
• Additional aims of individual radicals dilute their cause: Hunt wanting abolition of the Corn Laws, LCS wanting experienced success
annual parliaments, Cobbett and Hampden Clubs focus on reform as a remedy for social ills / suffering. given that they were
no match for the
Government use of power to intimidate, therefore annihilating radical groups and significantly hindering potential government. Every
radical support… single protest is
• Suspension of Habeas Corpus (1794) and the Treason Trials. 41 radicals (13 LCS) were arrested and 3 were put
on trial (incl Thomas Hardy). All were acquired but Thomas Hardy, the leader of LCS, withdrew from radical squashed and potential
politics. support and activity is
• Treason Act and Seditious Meetings Act are passed in 1795 and a reduction in radical activity is seen in the deterred by
following years. government
• The Gagging Acts are passed in 1817 that quell unrest in the short term. intervention (via
• The Six Acts 1819 put a stop to radical activity and radicalism ceases to re-emerge after this.
*Strength of Government effectively deal with and squash particular protests… propaganda, direct
Government • Utilisation of spies and agent provocateurs: used to gain inside knowledge of protests (taking pre-emptive action intervention or
to deal with them) e.g. infiltrated John Castle in Spa Fields 1816, use of William ‘Oliver’ in Pentrich Rising legislatory action).
1817.
• Harsh punishments after protests served to eliminate radical individuals e.g. after Pentrich 45 were tried for
treason, 14 were transported and 3 were publicly beheaded and hung (further acting as intimidation); 500 injured
and 11 dead at Peterloo.
(possible radical activity as a result of outrage at Peterloo was effectively squashed by the passing of the Six Acts
1819, suggesting that the passing of laws was most important in quelling unrest in the longer term while direct action
served its purpose to squash demonstrations in the short term)
Government propaganda to induce sense of patriotism in its people
• The government welcomed the Association movement (c1792) and used the loyalist Press to promote patriotic
propaganda (gave secret help to the associations, lavish funding).
• As a result, instead of supporting radicals, many people became volunteers for these loyalist groups.
The first wave of radicalism was very much influenced by the French Revolution. Both waves of radicalism were a Is significant in
result of economic suffering; economic strain from the French Revolutionary wars in 1790s and the exacerbation of dissipating the second
economic suffering via indirect tax and the Corn Laws in 1815+. However, after these periods, economic recovery
Climate for made it so that the climate for revolution dissipated.
radical wave, however,
government action is
revolution is no • The post-war economic difficulties were being overcome in 1820; trade improves and economy recovers which more significant in the
gives way to stability in the years to 1830.
longer apparent Although, this is not always the case since there is still economic suffering throughout 1790s and yet the radical
first wave of radicalism as
movement dissipates after 1795 (due to government intervention). More so, the climate for revolution is reduced by economic suffering
government use of patriotic propaganda and promotion of loyalist groups (Association movement). remains during the 1790s.
#
1790s 1815 Significance
The French Revolution (1789-99) • Key in directing anger
William Cobbett, Weekly Political Register towards the upper classes,
• inspired people in Britain (c1802) spreading radical ideas
• introduced new, key revolutionary ideas; • sold for just 2 shillings, was read by and generating support for
popular sovereignty and constitutionalism thousands the movement.
Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man (1791-92) • key in politicising and radicalising the lower • Dependent upon economic
Individuals & • defended the actions of French classes misery and government
intervention e.g. Cobbett’s
Movements revolutionaries and the ideas behind it • directed anger and discontent (as a result of influence was at it’s peak
evidence: ROM Part II sold over 200,000 economic misery) towards the upper classes during the harsh winter of
copies Henry ‘Orator’ Hunt 1816-17, following a poor
• was sold cheaply making it accessible to all • his fiery, captivating speeches drew the harvest and bread prices
• read aloud to crowds being at an all time high
attention of thousands (use of the mass (“I defy you to agitate any
*political debate was no longer limited to the platform) fellow with a full
propertied classes; radical ideas spread among evidence: major demonstrations such as Peterloo stomach”).
lower classes 1819 (50,000) and Spa Fields 1816 (10,000)
The French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
• put economic strain on Britain End of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) • Source/ root cause
• there were food shortages in many parts of • saw mass unemployment; return of 300,000 of political
England in the summer of 1795 soldiers and factories laying off workers discontent.
*Economic misery (reduced demand for manufacture of • Is exacerbated by
*caused economic misery, source of agitation
and political discontent weaponry and uniforms) government
evidence: the attack on King George III’s coach *cannot afford basic necessities, is exacerbated intervention and
on 29 October 1795, where angry mobsters by government action utilised by radicals
called for ‘peace’ and ‘bread’
The National Budget, Taxation (1815) • Exacerbates the
Government do not actively agitate the people; • abolished income tax system and introduced economic situation
Pitt’s government is reactionary (people want indirect tax • Government reaction is
to reform pre-existing laws that only utilised by radicals to
• put tax on everyday items (sugar, tea, tobacco, generate support
Government enfranchise aristocracy) soap, candles, beer) • Only really has impact in
Intervention The Corn Laws (1815) emergence of the second
• imposed tariffs on foreign wheat and banned radical wave; the first
imports until the price of wheat reached 80 wave is not provoked by
shillings quarter (equivalent to £290 today) government intervention
*disproprtionate effect on the poor, further (perhaps a lack of
instead).
impoverished the lower classes
, How much of a threat did radicals pose?
#
1790s 1815 Significance
Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man (1791-92) William Cobbett, Weekly Political Register (c1802) • There is definitely success in the
• ROM Part II sold over 200,000 copies • sold for 1 shilling, was read by thousands sense that ideas of radicalism are
• circulation of 4,000 in 1805 spreading throughout the country
• was sold cheaply making it accessible to all, read aloud • due to tax, he sold one sheet for just 2 pence, making it accessible
and that the w/c are able to
to crowds to w/c readers access these ideas.
Radical success *political debate was no longer limited to the propertied (ceased publication by 1817, Cobbett fled to USA) • There is a threat to the system of
classes; radical ideas spread among lower classes Mass demonstrations hereditary power and the
(evidence of London Corresponding Society (1792-93) • Spa Fields 1816; 10,000 attended (Henry Hunt) aristocracy.
• Pentrich Rising 1817; march of 300 men
threat) peaceful methods; used pamphlets and petitions
• St Peter’s Fields 1819; 80,000 gathered (largest crowd in Britain’s
• Idea that radical success must
have been perceived as a threat,
• 3,000 members at peak history) - dubbed Peterloo Massacre since government intervene.
• in 1793, it had support of 6,000 in signing of a petition John Cartwright, Hampden Clubs (c1812) • Idea that the climate for
• experience some success in early years, unable to act effectively revolution escalates both the
after 1817 due to infiltration of spies causing arrests of members. actual threat of radicals and the
perceived threat.
Suspension of Habeas Corpus (twice in 1794) and Trials of Spa Fields (1816) • Overall the use of
LCS leaders (1794) Lord Mayor of London’s constables dispersed rioters and arrested their government spies and agent
leader (coup failed); due to agent provocateur, Castle. provocateur were key in
• 13 members of the LCS were tried for treason; defendants Pentrich Rising (1817)
were acquitted but most leaders (incl. Thomas Hardy) Government utilised agent provocateur, Oliver, and a regiment of soldiers dissolving radical protests
withdrew from radical politics. (made it almost impossible
*Overarching Treason Act and Seditious Meetings Act (1795)
intercepted the rebel marchers, resulting in 80 arrests.14 were transported
and 3 men were hanged and publicly beheaded. for radicals to outwit the
governmental • made treason written or spoken (to restrict publications The Gagging Acts (1817)
• made the Treason and Seditious Meetings Acts permanent, suspended •
forces of order).
like ROM and protest pamphlets) and banned public Although it must be true that
power (evidence meetings over 50 people
habeas corpus
Quelled unrest in short term (esp. in London) but after terms lapsed in
the government felt
exaggerated) As a result radical activity diminished (events like 1818 radical activity sprang up once more. threatened by the radicals as
they decided to implement
Copenhagen fields and the attack on the king’s coach did not Peterloo (1819) '
reoccur) Sense of panic, yeomanry dispersed crowd and arrested Hunt, results in 11 laws and spy systems to deal
dead and over 500 injured with them, the actual threat
Stamp Tax (1797) and the Newspaper Regulation Act (1798)
The Six Acts (1819), in response to Peterloo
• made newspapers less affordable and limited ability of was much lower (the
• Unlawful Drilling Act - banned unlawful military style drilling
newspapers to publish critical articles • Seizure of Arms Act - magistrates could enter any property upon government’s perceived
suspicion of arms being kept threat of the radicals was
The French Revolution (1789-99) • Misdemeanours Act - those arrested were unlikely to be granted bail exacerbated by the fear of
• inspired people in Britain • Seditious Meetings Prevention Act - revived terms of 1795 and 1817 the French Revolution).
• introduced new, key revolutionary ideas; popular acts (which has been allowed to lapse) - is eventually repealed in • Fact of the matter is, the
sovereignty and constitutionalism 1824.
radicals are easily squashed
Climate for The French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
Newspapers and Stamp Duties Act (1819)
• raised price of stamp duty and increased number of newspapers which by government forces every
revolution • put economic strain on Britain had to pay it - reduce number of newspapers and pamphlets that could single time they attempt/ask
• there were food shortages in many parts of England in be published profitably for reform.
(evidence of the summer of 1795 End of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) • Contributes to perceived
‘potential’ threat) *caused economic misery, source of agitation and political • saw mass unemployment; return of 300,000 soldiers
threat of the radicals
discontent and factories laying off workers (reduced demand for • Increases support for
evidence: the attack on King George III’s coach on 29 manufacture of weaponry and uniforms)
October 1795, where angry mobsters called for ‘peace’ and radicals; when economy
*cannot afford basic necessities, is exacerbated by recovers during 1800s
‘bread’
government action (Corn Laws, Indirect Tax) radical activity dissipates.
, Why did radicalism fail?
#
Point, Evidence, Explanation Significance
• No national figures able or prepared to take position as leader: Cobbett’ role as a journalist and propagandist, Even with more unity
Henry Hunt as powerful orator (both not equipped to be leaders of a national movement).
and a clear leader, it is
Weakness of • Reformers were divided in whether to use moral force (persuasion) or physical force (violence) - lack of unified
unlikely that the
strategy and aims e.g. Cobbett using media, LCS using petitions and pamphlets vs mass demonstrations, Hunt
Radicals almost suggesting physical force at Spa Fields 1816. radicals would have
• Additional aims of individual radicals dilute their cause: Hunt wanting abolition of the Corn Laws, LCS wanting experienced success
annual parliaments, Cobbett and Hampden Clubs focus on reform as a remedy for social ills / suffering. given that they were
no match for the
Government use of power to intimidate, therefore annihilating radical groups and significantly hindering potential government. Every
radical support… single protest is
• Suspension of Habeas Corpus (1794) and the Treason Trials. 41 radicals (13 LCS) were arrested and 3 were put
on trial (incl Thomas Hardy). All were acquired but Thomas Hardy, the leader of LCS, withdrew from radical squashed and potential
politics. support and activity is
• Treason Act and Seditious Meetings Act are passed in 1795 and a reduction in radical activity is seen in the deterred by
following years. government
• The Gagging Acts are passed in 1817 that quell unrest in the short term. intervention (via
• The Six Acts 1819 put a stop to radical activity and radicalism ceases to re-emerge after this.
*Strength of Government effectively deal with and squash particular protests… propaganda, direct
Government • Utilisation of spies and agent provocateurs: used to gain inside knowledge of protests (taking pre-emptive action intervention or
to deal with them) e.g. infiltrated John Castle in Spa Fields 1816, use of William ‘Oliver’ in Pentrich Rising legislatory action).
1817.
• Harsh punishments after protests served to eliminate radical individuals e.g. after Pentrich 45 were tried for
treason, 14 were transported and 3 were publicly beheaded and hung (further acting as intimidation); 500 injured
and 11 dead at Peterloo.
(possible radical activity as a result of outrage at Peterloo was effectively squashed by the passing of the Six Acts
1819, suggesting that the passing of laws was most important in quelling unrest in the longer term while direct action
served its purpose to squash demonstrations in the short term)
Government propaganda to induce sense of patriotism in its people
• The government welcomed the Association movement (c1792) and used the loyalist Press to promote patriotic
propaganda (gave secret help to the associations, lavish funding).
• As a result, instead of supporting radicals, many people became volunteers for these loyalist groups.
The first wave of radicalism was very much influenced by the French Revolution. Both waves of radicalism were a Is significant in
result of economic suffering; economic strain from the French Revolutionary wars in 1790s and the exacerbation of dissipating the second
economic suffering via indirect tax and the Corn Laws in 1815+. However, after these periods, economic recovery
Climate for made it so that the climate for revolution dissipated.
radical wave, however,
government action is
revolution is no • The post-war economic difficulties were being overcome in 1820; trade improves and economy recovers which more significant in the
gives way to stability in the years to 1830.
longer apparent Although, this is not always the case since there is still economic suffering throughout 1790s and yet the radical
first wave of radicalism as
movement dissipates after 1795 (due to government intervention). More so, the climate for revolution is reduced by economic suffering
government use of patriotic propaganda and promotion of loyalist groups (Association movement). remains during the 1790s.
