A-Level AQA 2026 Psychology Paper 3 Mark Scheme with verified answers

A-Level AQA 2026 Psychology Paper 3 Mark Scheme with verified answers 1. what is the differential association theory - ANSWER an explanation for offending which proposes that, through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour 2. what did Sutherland suggest about the origin of criminal behaviour for differential association theory - ANSWER that offending behaviour may be acquired through learning from interactions with significant others, so criminality arises from learned pro-criminal attitudes and learning criminal acts, and if a person is exposed to more pro-criminal than anti-criminal attitudes they will go on to offend (and vice-versa for conformity) 3. what does differential association theory suggest about predicting criminal behaviour - ANSWER that it should be possible to predict how likely an individual is to commit crime if we know the frequency, intensity and duration for which they have been exposed to deviant and non-deviant norms and values 4. what did Sutherland suggest about reoffending rates for differential association theory - ANSWER that inmates learn specific techniques for offending from other more experienced criminals while in jail, which they may be eager to put into practice upon release, which may explain high reoffending rates (this learning may occur through observation, imitation or direct tuition) 5. what did Burgess later add to differential association theory - ANSWER differential reinforcement, which suggests that operant conditioning applies to criminal behaviour because criminals are often rewarded for their crimes, either through congratulations from their peers, or gaining the stolen item without paying for it 6. evaluate differential association theory - ANSWER accounts for crime in all sectors of society, offers a more realistic solution for crime, but is unfalsifiable and maybe reductionist 7. how does differential association theory account for crime in all sectors of society - ANSWER it accounts for this and also recognises that some types of crime are more common in working class communities and others in more affluent groups, while Sunderland himself coined the term 'white-collar crime' (corporate crime) 8. how does differential association theory offer a more realistic solution for crime - ANSWER Sutherland was successful in moving the emphasis away from earlier explanations for crime (e.g. Lombroso's atavistic form), focusing on dysfunctional social circumstances or environments (instead of dysfunctional people), so the theory is more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution that others (e.g. eugenics) 9. how is differential association theory unfalsifiable - ANSWER the theory is hard to test because it is difficult to measure factors such as how many pro- or anti-criminal attitudes a person has been exposed to, making the theory unfalsifiable and therefore unscientific and invalid 10. why may differential association theory be reductionist - ANSWER because it ignores the potential influence of other factors such as genetics (Lange) and the family's response to crime (Mednick), so could be seen as reductionist 11. what is the psychodynamic explanation for offending - ANSWER the superego works on the morality principle and punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guild, and rewards it for moral behaviour through pride, so Blackburn suggested that an inadequate superego causes criminal behaviour because the id is not properly controlled, and that there are 3 types of inadequate superego 12. what did Blackburn suggest were the 3 types of inadequate superego - ANSWER weak superego, deviant superego, and over-harsh superego 13. describe a weak superego (one type of inadequate superego) - ANSWER if the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage the child cannot identify with them and internalise a fully formed superego which makes immoral or criminal behaviour more likely 14. describe a deviant superego (one type of inadequate superego) - ANSWER when the child internalises a superego with immoral or deviant values e.g. because they had a criminal parent so do not associate guilt with wrongdoing 15. describe an overly-harsh superego (one type of inadequate superego) - ANSWER the individual is cripples by guilt and anxiety which may (unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment 16. what did Bowlby contribute to the psychodynamic explanation for criminal behaviour - ANSWER Bowlby argues that failure to establish a strong maternal bond during the first few years of life means that the child will experience consequences such as affectionless psychopathy in later life, and is likely to be delinquent and unable to develop close relationships with others (research support by juvenile thieves study) 17. evaluate the psychodynamic explanation for offending behaviour - ANSWER applicable to a wide range of crimes, but suggests that women should be more prone to criminal behaviour, is unfalsifiable, and other explanations may be better 18. how is the psychodynamic explanation applicable to a wide range of crimes - ANSWER it accounts for emotional factors such as poor relationships, and can explain illogical crimes such as rich people shoplifting (because of a harsh upbringing leading to an overly-harsh ego), so may be applicable to a wider range of crimes than other theories 19. why does the psychodynamic explanation suggest that women should be more prone to criminal behaviour - ANSWER Freud's theory implicitly assumes that girls develop a weaker superego than boys because they have not experienced castration anxiety, so women should be more prone to criminal behaviour, but there are 20x more males than females in prison and Hoffman found little gender difference in morality 20. how is the psychodynamic explanation for offending behaviour unfalsifiable - ANSWER because it includes many unconscious concepts (e.g. the superego), which are unfalsifiable (as they cannot be empirically tested) and therefore unscientific 21. why may other explanations for criminal behaviour be better than the psychodynamic explanation - ANSWER there is little evidence for Blackburn's arguement that children raised without a same-sex parent are more likely to commit crime which weakens it, while other explanations (e.g. genetics) may better explain why children of deviant parents are themselves more likely to commit crime, and why many criminals try to conceal their crimes, which suggests that they want to avoid punished, therefore contradicting the idea of an over-harsh superego 22. what are the four ways of dealing with offending behaviour - ANSWER custodial sentencing, behaviour modification in custody, anger management and restorative justice 23. what is custodial sentencing - ANSWER a judicial sentence determined by a court, where the offender is punished by serving time in prison or another closed institution e.g. psychiatric hospital. 24. what are the four aims of custodial sentencing - ANSWER deterrence, incapacitation, retribution, rehabilitation 25. describe deterrence as a aim of custodial sentencing - ANSWER general deterrence aims to send a broad message to society that crime will not be tolerated, while individual deterrence should prevent the individual from reoffending in light of their experience 26. describe incapacitation as a aim of custodial sentencing - ANSWER removing the offender from society prevents them from reoffending, so protects the public 27. describe retribution as a aim of custodial sentencing - ANSWER society enacts revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the severity of their crime 28. describe rehabilitation as a aim of custodial sentencing - ANSWER prisons may provide opportunities to develop skills, training, or access to treatment programmes so that offenders leave prison better adjusted and ready to return to society 29. what are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing - ANSWER stress and depression, institutionalisation and prisonisation 30. describe stress and depression as psychological effects of custodial sentencing - ANSWER rates of suicide, self-mutilation and self-harm are much higher in prison than in the general population, while the stress of the prison experience also increases the risk of psychological disturbance following release 31. describe institutionalisation as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing - ANSWER inmates may become so accustomed to the norms and routines of prison life that they are no longer able to function on the outside 32. describe prisonisation as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing - ANSWER behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded in custody 33. describe recidivism as an aspect of custodial sentencing - ANSWER the Ministry of Justice suggested in 2013 that 57% of UK offenders will reoffend within a year of release, while in 2007 14 prisons in England and Wales recorded reoffending rates of over 70% (Norwegian prisons place a greater emphasis on rehab and skills development and have less than half of the UK's recidivism rates, but have been punished for not sufficiently punishing their inmates) 34. evaluate custodial sentencing as a way of dealing with offending behaviour - ANSWER reduce recidivism rates, but may harm mental health, many factors affect effectiveness and benefits may be overexaggerated 35. describe how custodial sentencing reduces recidivism rates - ANSWER many prisoners access training and education while in prison which increases the chance of them finding employment upon release, and treatment programmes such as anger management schemes may give offenders insight into their behaviour and therefore reduce recidivism rates, which suggests that prison time is worthwhile if offenders can access these programmes (however many prisons don't have the resources to be able to provide them) 36. describe how custodial sentencing may harm mental health - ANSWER Bartol suggested that imprisonment can be 'brutal, demeaning and generally devastating' for offenders, suicide rates are 15x higher in offenders than the general population, and the Prison Reform Trust found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis, which suggests that custodial sentencing is not effective in rehabilitating people, especially those who are psychologically vulnerable 37. which factors affect the effectiveness of custodial sentencing - ANSWER factors e.g. sentence length, previous experience of prison and pre-existing emotional/psychological difficulties affect how an individual responds to prison time, so it is difficult to make general conclusions that apply to every prisoner in every prison 38. describe why the effectiveness of custodial sentencing may be overexaggerated - ANSWER a review of custodial sentencing in 2000 concluded that government ministers often do this to try and appear tough on crime, but prison does little to deter or rehabilitate offenders (and may worsen criminal behaviour according to differential association theory), while alternatives to custodial sentencing e.g. community service may be more effective 39. describe behaviour modification in custody as a way of dealing with offending behaviour - ANSWER applies the behaviourist approach to treatment using token economies (aim to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the selective use of positive and/or negative reinforcement) give an example of behaviour modification in custody - ANSWER token economies reinforce desirable behaviours (e.g. following rules) with a token that can then be exchanged for a reward (e.g. extra food), so the tokens are secondary reinforcers