Lecture 1 – Introduction and systems thinking in environmental pollution
Part I – Introduction to Plastic and Chemical Pollution
Chemistry has brought major innovations in agriculture, medicine, materials, and energy.
However, since the 1950s (the Great Acceleration) these advancements have also caused
significant environmental footprints. This era, called the Anthropocene, marks a period where
human activity dominates Earth’s systems through industrialization, deforestation, and
pollutant emissions.
Anthropocene epoch = proposed timeframe in which humans have a significant impact
Socioeconomic trends: international tourism, water use, fertilizer consumption etc.
→ Side effect of great acceleration is all the extra pollution
Chemistry has evolved in response:
Environmental chemistry emerged to study sources, reactions, transport, and fate of pollutants.
• Green chemistry promotes “benign by design” and pollution prevention.
• Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides a holistic view from production to disposal.
• Circular chemistry and circular economy aim for closed material loops (“chemistry
without waste”).
• One-world chemistry integrates sustainability and interdisciplinary systems thinking.
Chemical pollutants can be:
▪ Anthropogenic chemicals (pesticides, surfactants, solvents, pharmaceuticals).
▪ Anthropogenic materials (plastics, additives).
▪ Elevated natural substances (metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients).
▪ Persistent pollutants like POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) are PBT (Persistent,
Bioaccumulative, Toxic), requiring legislative control (e.g., EU REACH).
Anthropogenic chemicals = chemicals that are not naturally present, they are man-made
The course introduces methods to:
Measure and analyze pollutants, Assess risks and toxicity, Understand their environmental
pathways, Respond through science and policy.
Part II – Systems Thinking
Despite analytical advances and regulation, policies often fail to fully protect human and
ecological health. Systems Thinking (ST) helps understand why; by examining interconnections,
feedbacks, and root causes rather than isolated symptoms.
Core principles of systems thinking:
• Systems shape individual behavior: people act according to the system’s incentives and
constraints.
• ST moves beyond “end-of-pipe” fixes to address underlying structures and mindsets.
• It promotes holistic understanding across disciplines and time scales.
A system consists of interconnected elements (people, institutions, norms, and feedback loops)
that evolve dynamically. Problems are often systemic when they’re complex, chronic, multi-
causal, and have resisted past solutions.
1
,Iceberg Model:
Events → observable symptoms (e.g., fish kills, plastic litter)
Patterns → recurring trends (e.g., repeated pollution incidents)
Structures → systems and rules that produce patterns (e.g., weak regulation)
Mental Models → underlying beliefs that maintain the structure
ST helps reveal leverage points where small changes (e.g., changing incentives or norms) can
have large systemic effects.
Montreal Protocol (example)
• Didn't monitor it well, replaced the chemical with an equally bad chemical
• ST thinking enabled recognition of global interconnections in CFC-driven ozone
depletion. The Montreal Protocol (1987) was a successful systems-level intervention.
However, replacement compounds (HFCs) later contributed to global warming; showing
limits of partial system fixes.
Applications to pollution
• Pollution problems (plastics, chemicals) are embedded in societal structures:
convenience culture, industrial production, weak governance.
Addressing them requires:
▪ Cross-sector collaboration.
▪ Changing mental models about disposability and growth.
▪ Long-term, systemic redesign (not isolated fixes).
• Ultimately, systems thinking aims to make our actions “less wrong”: improving
understanding, testing assumptions, and steering toward sustainable transformation.
• Goal is to change the entire system to combat climate change
2
,Lecture 2 – Introduction to plastic pollution
1. Why Plastics Matter
• Plastics are one of the defining materials of the Anthropocene.
• Global production exceeds 400 million tons per year, with over half of all plastics ever
made produced after 2000.
• They are lightweight, durable, cheap, and used widely; but their persistence creates
severe environmental consequences.
Main uses:
• 44% packaging
• 18% construction
• 8% automotive
• 7% electronics
• Yet only 9–10% of plastic waste is recycled globally.
Oil connection: Around 8–10% of total global oil goes into making plastics, often as a by-product
of petroleum refining.
As Susan Freinkel wrote: “It took one generation to get hooked.”
• Plastics became ubiquitous because they were versatile and profitable.
2. From linear to circular systems
The linear economy model: take → make → waste, mixes technical and biological materials,
generating pollution.
Planned obsolescence: reinforces waste by designing products to fail early or become obsolete
➢ Light bulb conspiracy: film on the deliberate limitation by manufacturers of the lifespan
of their products in order to secure sales of replacement and follow-up products. The
film also explores the economic and ecological consequences of consumer society.
3. Plastic waste and environmental impacts
Plastic litter leaks into ecosystems on all scales:
• Macroplastics (visible items like bottles and bags)
• Microplastics (tiny fragments <5 mm)
• Nanoplastics (microscopic particles)
These materials:
• Entangle or are eaten by animals
• Transport chemical additives and pollutants
• Persist in sediments and soils
• Spread globally through wind and water
4. What is plastic?
Plastic = (ISO 472): A material containing a high polymer that can be shaped by flow during
processing.
Polymer = a large molecule made of repeated subunits (monomers).
• Examples: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, PVC, PET.
3
, 5. What’s in my stuff? Plastic additives
Plastics aren’t just polymers, they contain a cocktail of additives to modify properties like
flexibility, color, and stability.
Examples of additives:
• Plasticizers (e.g., phthalates, bisphenols)
• Flame retardants (e.g., PBDEs, TBBP-A)
• UV stabilizers
• Antioxidants, antifoams, biocides, dyes
• Fragrances and processing aids
There are >9,000 plastic grades and >10,000 additive types on the market.
These substances can leach, migrate, or degrade into new compounds, some with unknown
toxicity.
6. Microplastics: A complex pollutant
Microplastics = A diverse group of plastic particles covering 6 orders of magnitude in size, made
from thousands of polymer types.
Toxicity depends on:
• Particle size and surface chemistry
• Additives or residual monomers
• Dose and exposure duration
• Species and exposure route (inhalation, ingestion, dermal)
Currently, microplastic pollution is ubiquitous and persistent, but risk assessment data
(especially for human health) are still insufficient.
7. Toxicity of plastics
Plastic toxicity operates through three main pathways:
1. Chemical toxicity: from additives like EDCs
(endocrine disruptors), neurotoxicants, mutagens.
2. Material toxicity: from particle effects
(inflammation, oxidative stress, cell damage).
3. Environmental toxicity: effects on ecosystems
(e.g., microbes, invertebrates, food web
accumulation).
• Exposure routes: food, water, air, occupational
contact, and consumer products.
Examples:
• Antiwrinkle cream: 1.5 million polyethylene particles per jar.
• Shower gel: 10% by weight polyethylene granules.
• Infant bottles: release millions of PP particles/L during sterilization.
8. Old and new toxic chemicals
• Old pollutants (like banned PBDEs) are still recycled into new products.
• New, unregulated chemicals continue to appear in the plastic stream.
• 79 plastic-related chemicals were found in European Parliamentarians’ blood (WWF
2004).
Challenges:
- Design signals human intentions
- (micro)plastic emissions result from design choices, policy, economic and financial
drivers
4
Part I – Introduction to Plastic and Chemical Pollution
Chemistry has brought major innovations in agriculture, medicine, materials, and energy.
However, since the 1950s (the Great Acceleration) these advancements have also caused
significant environmental footprints. This era, called the Anthropocene, marks a period where
human activity dominates Earth’s systems through industrialization, deforestation, and
pollutant emissions.
Anthropocene epoch = proposed timeframe in which humans have a significant impact
Socioeconomic trends: international tourism, water use, fertilizer consumption etc.
→ Side effect of great acceleration is all the extra pollution
Chemistry has evolved in response:
Environmental chemistry emerged to study sources, reactions, transport, and fate of pollutants.
• Green chemistry promotes “benign by design” and pollution prevention.
• Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides a holistic view from production to disposal.
• Circular chemistry and circular economy aim for closed material loops (“chemistry
without waste”).
• One-world chemistry integrates sustainability and interdisciplinary systems thinking.
Chemical pollutants can be:
▪ Anthropogenic chemicals (pesticides, surfactants, solvents, pharmaceuticals).
▪ Anthropogenic materials (plastics, additives).
▪ Elevated natural substances (metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients).
▪ Persistent pollutants like POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) are PBT (Persistent,
Bioaccumulative, Toxic), requiring legislative control (e.g., EU REACH).
Anthropogenic chemicals = chemicals that are not naturally present, they are man-made
The course introduces methods to:
Measure and analyze pollutants, Assess risks and toxicity, Understand their environmental
pathways, Respond through science and policy.
Part II – Systems Thinking
Despite analytical advances and regulation, policies often fail to fully protect human and
ecological health. Systems Thinking (ST) helps understand why; by examining interconnections,
feedbacks, and root causes rather than isolated symptoms.
Core principles of systems thinking:
• Systems shape individual behavior: people act according to the system’s incentives and
constraints.
• ST moves beyond “end-of-pipe” fixes to address underlying structures and mindsets.
• It promotes holistic understanding across disciplines and time scales.
A system consists of interconnected elements (people, institutions, norms, and feedback loops)
that evolve dynamically. Problems are often systemic when they’re complex, chronic, multi-
causal, and have resisted past solutions.
1
,Iceberg Model:
Events → observable symptoms (e.g., fish kills, plastic litter)
Patterns → recurring trends (e.g., repeated pollution incidents)
Structures → systems and rules that produce patterns (e.g., weak regulation)
Mental Models → underlying beliefs that maintain the structure
ST helps reveal leverage points where small changes (e.g., changing incentives or norms) can
have large systemic effects.
Montreal Protocol (example)
• Didn't monitor it well, replaced the chemical with an equally bad chemical
• ST thinking enabled recognition of global interconnections in CFC-driven ozone
depletion. The Montreal Protocol (1987) was a successful systems-level intervention.
However, replacement compounds (HFCs) later contributed to global warming; showing
limits of partial system fixes.
Applications to pollution
• Pollution problems (plastics, chemicals) are embedded in societal structures:
convenience culture, industrial production, weak governance.
Addressing them requires:
▪ Cross-sector collaboration.
▪ Changing mental models about disposability and growth.
▪ Long-term, systemic redesign (not isolated fixes).
• Ultimately, systems thinking aims to make our actions “less wrong”: improving
understanding, testing assumptions, and steering toward sustainable transformation.
• Goal is to change the entire system to combat climate change
2
,Lecture 2 – Introduction to plastic pollution
1. Why Plastics Matter
• Plastics are one of the defining materials of the Anthropocene.
• Global production exceeds 400 million tons per year, with over half of all plastics ever
made produced after 2000.
• They are lightweight, durable, cheap, and used widely; but their persistence creates
severe environmental consequences.
Main uses:
• 44% packaging
• 18% construction
• 8% automotive
• 7% electronics
• Yet only 9–10% of plastic waste is recycled globally.
Oil connection: Around 8–10% of total global oil goes into making plastics, often as a by-product
of petroleum refining.
As Susan Freinkel wrote: “It took one generation to get hooked.”
• Plastics became ubiquitous because they were versatile and profitable.
2. From linear to circular systems
The linear economy model: take → make → waste, mixes technical and biological materials,
generating pollution.
Planned obsolescence: reinforces waste by designing products to fail early or become obsolete
➢ Light bulb conspiracy: film on the deliberate limitation by manufacturers of the lifespan
of their products in order to secure sales of replacement and follow-up products. The
film also explores the economic and ecological consequences of consumer society.
3. Plastic waste and environmental impacts
Plastic litter leaks into ecosystems on all scales:
• Macroplastics (visible items like bottles and bags)
• Microplastics (tiny fragments <5 mm)
• Nanoplastics (microscopic particles)
These materials:
• Entangle or are eaten by animals
• Transport chemical additives and pollutants
• Persist in sediments and soils
• Spread globally through wind and water
4. What is plastic?
Plastic = (ISO 472): A material containing a high polymer that can be shaped by flow during
processing.
Polymer = a large molecule made of repeated subunits (monomers).
• Examples: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, PVC, PET.
3
, 5. What’s in my stuff? Plastic additives
Plastics aren’t just polymers, they contain a cocktail of additives to modify properties like
flexibility, color, and stability.
Examples of additives:
• Plasticizers (e.g., phthalates, bisphenols)
• Flame retardants (e.g., PBDEs, TBBP-A)
• UV stabilizers
• Antioxidants, antifoams, biocides, dyes
• Fragrances and processing aids
There are >9,000 plastic grades and >10,000 additive types on the market.
These substances can leach, migrate, or degrade into new compounds, some with unknown
toxicity.
6. Microplastics: A complex pollutant
Microplastics = A diverse group of plastic particles covering 6 orders of magnitude in size, made
from thousands of polymer types.
Toxicity depends on:
• Particle size and surface chemistry
• Additives or residual monomers
• Dose and exposure duration
• Species and exposure route (inhalation, ingestion, dermal)
Currently, microplastic pollution is ubiquitous and persistent, but risk assessment data
(especially for human health) are still insufficient.
7. Toxicity of plastics
Plastic toxicity operates through three main pathways:
1. Chemical toxicity: from additives like EDCs
(endocrine disruptors), neurotoxicants, mutagens.
2. Material toxicity: from particle effects
(inflammation, oxidative stress, cell damage).
3. Environmental toxicity: effects on ecosystems
(e.g., microbes, invertebrates, food web
accumulation).
• Exposure routes: food, water, air, occupational
contact, and consumer products.
Examples:
• Antiwrinkle cream: 1.5 million polyethylene particles per jar.
• Shower gel: 10% by weight polyethylene granules.
• Infant bottles: release millions of PP particles/L during sterilization.
8. Old and new toxic chemicals
• Old pollutants (like banned PBDEs) are still recycled into new products.
• New, unregulated chemicals continue to appear in the plastic stream.
• 79 plastic-related chemicals were found in European Parliamentarians’ blood (WWF
2004).
Challenges:
- Design signals human intentions
- (micro)plastic emissions result from design choices, policy, economic and financial
drivers
4
