H1: Introduction
Cognitive psychology: the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind. Cognition: mental processes, such as
perception, attention, and memory, that are what the mind does. The mind creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention,
memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking and reasoning. The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act
within it to achieve our goals. 1. Donders (1868): Simple reaction time: asking subjects to push a button as rapidly as possible when they saw a
light goes on. VS Choice reaction time: using two lights and asking subjects to push the left button when they saw the left light go on and right
button when they saw the right light go on. 2. Wundt (1879): Structuralism: our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of
experience the structuralists called sensations (“Periodic table of the mind”). Analytic introspection: trained participants described their
sensations, feelings and thought processes in response to stimuli (eg. “sweetness”). 3. Ebbinghaus (1885): Savings curve (Savings method to
measure forgetting) — memory drops rapidly for the first 2 days after initial learning. Behaviorism: Purely objective, experimental branch of
natural science. Theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Classical conditioning: how pairing one stimulus (e.g loud noise
presented) with another, previously neutral stimulus (e.g rat) causes changes in the response to the neutral stimulus (Pavlov) Operant
conditioning: how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g food/social approval) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g shock/social
rejection). Cognitive map: conception within the rat’s mind of maze’s layout. Cognitive revolution (1950s) — shift in psychology to an approach whose main thrust was to
understand the operation of the mind. → information-processing approach: an approach that traces sequences of mental operations involved in cognition.
H3: Perception
Perceptie is niet eenduidig (je kan andere dingen zien met dezelfde input). Perceptie is een proces (grotendeels onbewust, kost moeite/energie om het anders te zien). Perceptie
veronderstelt kennis/geheugen. Perceptie is context afhankelijk (zowel in tijd als in omgeving). Perceptie is ALTIJD een combi van bottom-up (vanuit externe omgeving) en
top-down (vanuit onze hersenen) processing. // We define perception as experients resulting from stimulation of the senses. Perception involves complex, and usually invisible,
processes that do resemble reasoning. Perception occurs in conjunction with action. Perception involves dynamic processes that accompany and support our actions. //
Perception starts with bottom-up processing, which involves stimulation of the receptors, creating
electrical signals that reach the visual receiving area of the brain. Perception also involves top-down
processing, which originates in the brain and involves expectation, experience, culture and knowledge.
Verschil tussen sensatie (gewaarwording) en perceptie (waarneming): sensatie is puur de registratie
van sensorische signalen (bottom-up). Perceptie is een combinatie van registratie (bottom-up) EN
geheugen, verwachtingen, ervaring, kennis (top-down) en gestalt principles (“interpretatie”). Helmontz:
Likelihood principle: states that we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received. This judgment of what’s most likely occurs is
done by a process called unconscious inference: our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions, or inferences that we make about the environment (this process
happens rapidly and unconsciously). Gestalt principles: number of principles of perceptual organization to explain the way elements are grouped together to create larger
objects. Physical regularities: are regularly occurring physical properties of the environment (easy to see trees etc, vertical object, oblique effect). Semantic regularities: are
the characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes. Our visualizations contain information based on out knowledge of different kinds of
scenes (scene schema). Experience-dependent plasticity: the brain is changed or ‘shaped’ by its exposure to the environment so it can perceive the environment more
efficiently. Research shows (monkey/woman with brain damage) that perception and action are largely processed in two separate pathways in the brain. Ogen: staafjes( buitenste
deel v/d retina. circa 100 tot 120 miljoen, alleen grijstinten, lage resolutie, hoge gevoeligheid licht. Kegeltjes (centrum v/d retina: Macula (gele vlek), 4 tot 6.5 miljoen per oog,
zorgt voor waarneming kleuren, hoge resolutie, lage gevoeligheid).
H4: Attention
Attention is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously
possible objects or trains of thought. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.
Attention: the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations.Internal attention: task rules, responses, LTM, working
memory (goal directed). External attention: features, objects, spatial locations, sensory modality, time points (stimulus
driven/ goal directed). Goal-directed: attention (curiosity, motivation, focus). Endogenous (top-down), aandacht die van
binnenuit wordt gestuurd. Stimulus-driven: attention (reaction, fear, pop-up ads). Exogenous (bottom-up), aandacht die van buitenaf wordt gestuurd. Selectieve aandacht is
noodzakelijk en gebeurt altijd, omdat onze informatieverwerkende systemen een capaciteitslimiet hebben. Broadbent’s filter model of attention. His model was designed to
explain how it’s possible to focus on one message only and why information isn’t taken in from the other message. (Early selection model; The filter eliminates the unattended
information right at the beginning of the flow of the information, before it’s fully analyzes and its meaning is derived). Treisman’s attenuation model of attention. The
attenuator analyzes the incoming message in terms of (1) its physical characteristics (high/low-pitched, fast/slow); (2) its language (how message groups into syllables/words);
(3) its meaning (sequences of words create meaningful phrases). Dictionary unit: contains words, stored in memory, has threshold for being activated : Words that are common
/ especially important - low thresholds. Lavie (1995): Processing capacity: the amount of information people can handle and process at a given time. Lavie (1995): Perceptual
load: is related to the difficulty of a task (low/high-load tasks). Perceptual load theory/load theory of attention: Low-load tasks that use few cognitive resources may leave
resources available for processing unattended task-irrelevant stimuli, whereas high-load tasks that use all of a person’s cognitive resources don’t leave any resources to process
unattended task-irrelevant stimuli. The ability to ignore task-irrelevant stimuli is a function not only of the load of the task you’re trying to do, but also of how powerful the
task-irrelevant stimulus is. Flanker task: a compatible flanker will speed up the response while a not-compatible flanker will slow down the response. However, the size of these
effects will depend on the extent to which the flankers are noticed. Overt attention: shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes. Covert attention: shifting
attention from one place to another while keeping the eyes stationary. Stimulus salience: the physical properties of the stimulus (color, contrast, movement) (Can influence both
covert and overt attention). Inattentional blindness: people can be unaware of clearly visible stimuli if they aren’t directing their attention to them. Change blindness: the
difficulty in detecting changes in scenes. Compatibility effect: reflecteert het verschil in reactietijd bij compatibel taken ten opzichte van incompatible taken. Stroop effect:
situatie waarin taak-irrelevante stimuli moeilijk te negeren zijn (Bijv. woord ‘geel’ in het groen geschreven). Binding is the
process by which object features are combined to create perception of a coherent object. Feature integration theory explains
how binding occurs by proposing two stages of processing, preattentive processing and focused attention.
H5: Short-term and working memory
Memory: is the process involved in retaining, retrieving and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas and
skills after the original information is no longer present.// Memory is active anytime some past experience has an effect on
the way you think or behave now or in the future. Modal model of memory (afb): 1. Sensory memory is an initial stage
that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second. 2. STM holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds. 3.
LTM can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades. Sensory memory: is the retention, for brief periods of time, of the
effects of sensory stimulation. Sperling (1960): How much information people can take in from briefly presented stimuli, whole report
method(Subjects were asked to report as many letters as possible from the entire 12- letter display), partial report method(Subjects were
told to report letters in a single 4-letter row), delayed partial report method. Conclusion: sensory memory can register huge amounts of
information but it retains this information for only a fraction of a second. Keppel & Underwood (1962) suggested that the drop-off in
memory was due not to passive decay of the memory trace over time, but to proactive interference: interference that occurs when information that was learned previously
interferes with learning new information (when old learning interferes with new learning). Retroactive interference: occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old
learning. Chunking: small units can be combined into larger meaningful units (is a control process).
Cognitive psychology: the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind. Cognition: mental processes, such as
perception, attention, and memory, that are what the mind does. The mind creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention,
memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking and reasoning. The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act
within it to achieve our goals. 1. Donders (1868): Simple reaction time: asking subjects to push a button as rapidly as possible when they saw a
light goes on. VS Choice reaction time: using two lights and asking subjects to push the left button when they saw the left light go on and right
button when they saw the right light go on. 2. Wundt (1879): Structuralism: our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of
experience the structuralists called sensations (“Periodic table of the mind”). Analytic introspection: trained participants described their
sensations, feelings and thought processes in response to stimuli (eg. “sweetness”). 3. Ebbinghaus (1885): Savings curve (Savings method to
measure forgetting) — memory drops rapidly for the first 2 days after initial learning. Behaviorism: Purely objective, experimental branch of
natural science. Theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Classical conditioning: how pairing one stimulus (e.g loud noise
presented) with another, previously neutral stimulus (e.g rat) causes changes in the response to the neutral stimulus (Pavlov) Operant
conditioning: how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g food/social approval) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g shock/social
rejection). Cognitive map: conception within the rat’s mind of maze’s layout. Cognitive revolution (1950s) — shift in psychology to an approach whose main thrust was to
understand the operation of the mind. → information-processing approach: an approach that traces sequences of mental operations involved in cognition.
H3: Perception
Perceptie is niet eenduidig (je kan andere dingen zien met dezelfde input). Perceptie is een proces (grotendeels onbewust, kost moeite/energie om het anders te zien). Perceptie
veronderstelt kennis/geheugen. Perceptie is context afhankelijk (zowel in tijd als in omgeving). Perceptie is ALTIJD een combi van bottom-up (vanuit externe omgeving) en
top-down (vanuit onze hersenen) processing. // We define perception as experients resulting from stimulation of the senses. Perception involves complex, and usually invisible,
processes that do resemble reasoning. Perception occurs in conjunction with action. Perception involves dynamic processes that accompany and support our actions. //
Perception starts with bottom-up processing, which involves stimulation of the receptors, creating
electrical signals that reach the visual receiving area of the brain. Perception also involves top-down
processing, which originates in the brain and involves expectation, experience, culture and knowledge.
Verschil tussen sensatie (gewaarwording) en perceptie (waarneming): sensatie is puur de registratie
van sensorische signalen (bottom-up). Perceptie is een combinatie van registratie (bottom-up) EN
geheugen, verwachtingen, ervaring, kennis (top-down) en gestalt principles (“interpretatie”). Helmontz:
Likelihood principle: states that we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received. This judgment of what’s most likely occurs is
done by a process called unconscious inference: our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions, or inferences that we make about the environment (this process
happens rapidly and unconsciously). Gestalt principles: number of principles of perceptual organization to explain the way elements are grouped together to create larger
objects. Physical regularities: are regularly occurring physical properties of the environment (easy to see trees etc, vertical object, oblique effect). Semantic regularities: are
the characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes. Our visualizations contain information based on out knowledge of different kinds of
scenes (scene schema). Experience-dependent plasticity: the brain is changed or ‘shaped’ by its exposure to the environment so it can perceive the environment more
efficiently. Research shows (monkey/woman with brain damage) that perception and action are largely processed in two separate pathways in the brain. Ogen: staafjes( buitenste
deel v/d retina. circa 100 tot 120 miljoen, alleen grijstinten, lage resolutie, hoge gevoeligheid licht. Kegeltjes (centrum v/d retina: Macula (gele vlek), 4 tot 6.5 miljoen per oog,
zorgt voor waarneming kleuren, hoge resolutie, lage gevoeligheid).
H4: Attention
Attention is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously
possible objects or trains of thought. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.
Attention: the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations.Internal attention: task rules, responses, LTM, working
memory (goal directed). External attention: features, objects, spatial locations, sensory modality, time points (stimulus
driven/ goal directed). Goal-directed: attention (curiosity, motivation, focus). Endogenous (top-down), aandacht die van
binnenuit wordt gestuurd. Stimulus-driven: attention (reaction, fear, pop-up ads). Exogenous (bottom-up), aandacht die van buitenaf wordt gestuurd. Selectieve aandacht is
noodzakelijk en gebeurt altijd, omdat onze informatieverwerkende systemen een capaciteitslimiet hebben. Broadbent’s filter model of attention. His model was designed to
explain how it’s possible to focus on one message only and why information isn’t taken in from the other message. (Early selection model; The filter eliminates the unattended
information right at the beginning of the flow of the information, before it’s fully analyzes and its meaning is derived). Treisman’s attenuation model of attention. The
attenuator analyzes the incoming message in terms of (1) its physical characteristics (high/low-pitched, fast/slow); (2) its language (how message groups into syllables/words);
(3) its meaning (sequences of words create meaningful phrases). Dictionary unit: contains words, stored in memory, has threshold for being activated : Words that are common
/ especially important - low thresholds. Lavie (1995): Processing capacity: the amount of information people can handle and process at a given time. Lavie (1995): Perceptual
load: is related to the difficulty of a task (low/high-load tasks). Perceptual load theory/load theory of attention: Low-load tasks that use few cognitive resources may leave
resources available for processing unattended task-irrelevant stimuli, whereas high-load tasks that use all of a person’s cognitive resources don’t leave any resources to process
unattended task-irrelevant stimuli. The ability to ignore task-irrelevant stimuli is a function not only of the load of the task you’re trying to do, but also of how powerful the
task-irrelevant stimulus is. Flanker task: a compatible flanker will speed up the response while a not-compatible flanker will slow down the response. However, the size of these
effects will depend on the extent to which the flankers are noticed. Overt attention: shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes. Covert attention: shifting
attention from one place to another while keeping the eyes stationary. Stimulus salience: the physical properties of the stimulus (color, contrast, movement) (Can influence both
covert and overt attention). Inattentional blindness: people can be unaware of clearly visible stimuli if they aren’t directing their attention to them. Change blindness: the
difficulty in detecting changes in scenes. Compatibility effect: reflecteert het verschil in reactietijd bij compatibel taken ten opzichte van incompatible taken. Stroop effect:
situatie waarin taak-irrelevante stimuli moeilijk te negeren zijn (Bijv. woord ‘geel’ in het groen geschreven). Binding is the
process by which object features are combined to create perception of a coherent object. Feature integration theory explains
how binding occurs by proposing two stages of processing, preattentive processing and focused attention.
H5: Short-term and working memory
Memory: is the process involved in retaining, retrieving and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas and
skills after the original information is no longer present.// Memory is active anytime some past experience has an effect on
the way you think or behave now or in the future. Modal model of memory (afb): 1. Sensory memory is an initial stage
that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second. 2. STM holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds. 3.
LTM can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades. Sensory memory: is the retention, for brief periods of time, of the
effects of sensory stimulation. Sperling (1960): How much information people can take in from briefly presented stimuli, whole report
method(Subjects were asked to report as many letters as possible from the entire 12- letter display), partial report method(Subjects were
told to report letters in a single 4-letter row), delayed partial report method. Conclusion: sensory memory can register huge amounts of
information but it retains this information for only a fraction of a second. Keppel & Underwood (1962) suggested that the drop-off in
memory was due not to passive decay of the memory trace over time, but to proactive interference: interference that occurs when information that was learned previously
interferes with learning new information (when old learning interferes with new learning). Retroactive interference: occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old
learning. Chunking: small units can be combined into larger meaningful units (is a control process).
