Chapter 7 – Key Processes in Memory
(Pages 194 - 227)
3 Key Processes in Memory:
1. Encoding: Forming a memory
code (getting info in)
2. Storage: Maintaining encoded
information in memory over
time
3. Retrieval: Involves recovering
information from memory
stores
1. Encoding: Getting Information into Memory
Role of attention:
Active encoding is crucial in memory formation.
E.g. Forgetting someone’s name 30 seconds after hearing it because you were focusing on
what they look like or what you are
Levels of Processing: Levels of Processing Theory: Craik and Lockhart
Attention is critical
to the encoding of
memories
Attention is NOT
created equal
How people attend
to information are
the main factors
influencing how
much they
remember
3 level of encoding
according to levels-
of-processing theory: structural, phonemic and semantic.
o Structural encoding: relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical
structure of the stimulus. E.g. what words look like (length, size)
o Phonemic encoding: emphasises what a word sounds like. E.g. naming and
saying a word
o Semantic encoding: emphasises the meaning of verbal input. E.g. thinking
about the objects and actions which words represent.
1
, Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processes result in longer-
lasting memory codes.
Study shows: structural = least effective & semantic = most effective in retrieval of
words.
Enriching encoding
1. Elaboration:
Linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
E.g. Apply knowledge to personal experience therefore additional connections and
aiding memory
Differences can assist in explaining the different approaches to semantic processing
result in varied amounts of retention
2. Visual Imagery:
Forming images: easier when they are concrete (bug) rather than abstract (truth)
Imagery facilities memory because it provides 2nd kind of memory code – 2 kinds of
memory code are better than one
3. Dual-coding theory (Paivio): Memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and
visual codes because either can lead to recall
4. Self-Referent Encoding:
Involves determining how (or whether) information is personally relevant
Making material personally meaningful enriches encoding
5. Motivation to Remember (MTR):
When MTR is high at time of encoding (because it is deemed important), people are
more likely to organise info in a way that facilitates good recall
Influence encoding effectiveness is one’s motivation to remember
E.g. Final reward for remembering details about picture was more effective if reward
was offered at time of encoding rather than time of retrieval
2. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
**Atkinson and Shiffrin
How we remember stuff: Sensory Short-term Long-term
Sensory Memory
o Preserves information in its original sensory (see, hear, smell, taste or touch) form
for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second
o Afterimage rather than the actual stimulus in terms of sparklers in the dark. Sensory
memory preserves the image long enough to perceive a continuous circle rather than
separate light points
o Memory traces in the sensory store decay almost immediately to nothing
Short-term Memory (STM)
o Is limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for between 10
and 20 seconds
o Rehearsal: The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information
o Rehearsal recycles the information in short-term memory – it is dependant mainly on
phonemic encoding (time-related decay of memory interference).
Durability of Storage:
2
(Pages 194 - 227)
3 Key Processes in Memory:
1. Encoding: Forming a memory
code (getting info in)
2. Storage: Maintaining encoded
information in memory over
time
3. Retrieval: Involves recovering
information from memory
stores
1. Encoding: Getting Information into Memory
Role of attention:
Active encoding is crucial in memory formation.
E.g. Forgetting someone’s name 30 seconds after hearing it because you were focusing on
what they look like or what you are
Levels of Processing: Levels of Processing Theory: Craik and Lockhart
Attention is critical
to the encoding of
memories
Attention is NOT
created equal
How people attend
to information are
the main factors
influencing how
much they
remember
3 level of encoding
according to levels-
of-processing theory: structural, phonemic and semantic.
o Structural encoding: relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical
structure of the stimulus. E.g. what words look like (length, size)
o Phonemic encoding: emphasises what a word sounds like. E.g. naming and
saying a word
o Semantic encoding: emphasises the meaning of verbal input. E.g. thinking
about the objects and actions which words represent.
1
, Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processes result in longer-
lasting memory codes.
Study shows: structural = least effective & semantic = most effective in retrieval of
words.
Enriching encoding
1. Elaboration:
Linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
E.g. Apply knowledge to personal experience therefore additional connections and
aiding memory
Differences can assist in explaining the different approaches to semantic processing
result in varied amounts of retention
2. Visual Imagery:
Forming images: easier when they are concrete (bug) rather than abstract (truth)
Imagery facilities memory because it provides 2nd kind of memory code – 2 kinds of
memory code are better than one
3. Dual-coding theory (Paivio): Memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and
visual codes because either can lead to recall
4. Self-Referent Encoding:
Involves determining how (or whether) information is personally relevant
Making material personally meaningful enriches encoding
5. Motivation to Remember (MTR):
When MTR is high at time of encoding (because it is deemed important), people are
more likely to organise info in a way that facilitates good recall
Influence encoding effectiveness is one’s motivation to remember
E.g. Final reward for remembering details about picture was more effective if reward
was offered at time of encoding rather than time of retrieval
2. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
**Atkinson and Shiffrin
How we remember stuff: Sensory Short-term Long-term
Sensory Memory
o Preserves information in its original sensory (see, hear, smell, taste or touch) form
for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second
o Afterimage rather than the actual stimulus in terms of sparklers in the dark. Sensory
memory preserves the image long enough to perceive a continuous circle rather than
separate light points
o Memory traces in the sensory store decay almost immediately to nothing
Short-term Memory (STM)
o Is limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for between 10
and 20 seconds
o Rehearsal: The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information
o Rehearsal recycles the information in short-term memory – it is dependant mainly on
phonemic encoding (time-related decay of memory interference).
Durability of Storage:
2
