Marketing Communications Book
Chapter 3: How marketing communications work
Hierarchy-of-effects models
According to traditional hierarchy-of-effects models, consumers go through three different
stages in responding to marketing communications, namely a cognitive, an affective and a
behavioral stage, or a think–feel–do sequence. The task of marketing communications is then
to lead the consumers through these successive stages.
Cognitive: consumers engage in mental (thinking) processes which lead to awareness and
knowledge of the brand communicated. (can be effortless)
Affective: emotional or evaluative responses occur which are associated with the
advertised brand and attitudes towards the brand are formed. (this only formed when need
for evaluation arises)
Behavioral: refers to undertaking actions with respect to the advertised brand, such as
buying it.
Alternative models:
Low- involvement hierarchy of-effects model: consumers, after frequent exposure to
marketing messages, might buy the product, and decide afterwards how they feel about it
(cognitive–behavioral affective hierarchy).
Experiential hierarchy-of-effects model: consumers’ affective responses towards a
product lead them to buy it and, if necessary, they reflect on it later. This would suggest
an affective– behavioral–cognitive sequence.
Vaughn proposed an integration of the different sequence models and presented a model,
known as the Foote–Cone–Belding (FCB) grid. Four different situations are distinguished,
based on two dimensions, i.e. the high–low involvement and the think–feel dimension.
Involvement can be defined as the
importance people attach to a product or a
buying decision, the extent to which one has
to think it over and the level of perceived
risk associated with an inadequate brand
choice.
The think–feel dimension represents a
continuum reflecting the extent to which a
decision is made on a cognitive or an
affective basis.
First quadrant: Classical hierarchy of effects
would hold (high involvement – rational thinking). (loan, computer)
Second quadrant: Decisions of high involvement, but for which less information is
needed. (jewelry, holidays)
Third quadrant: Product decisions are located that require a minimum of cognitive effort
and tend to become routinised because of habit formation. The assumed sequence is first
buying the product, then learning what its major advantages and disadvantages are, and
finally developing an attitude after product or brand usage. (toilet paper)
, Fourth quadrant: Reflects decision-making regarding products which can be termed ‘life’s
little pleasures’. The assumed sequence here is: buy the product, experience an affective
response and gather product knowledge afterwards. (ice cream)
The Rossiter-Percy grid is a modification of the FCB grid which again classifies products
and buying decisions in four categories, based on the dimensions of high–low involvement
and fulfilling a transformational or informational buying motive.
Transformational buying motives consist of positive motivations, such as sensory
gratification, social approval or intellectual stimulation
- Examples of products for which transformational motives prevail are products that
give consumers pleasure, such as ice cream, cosmetics and perfume
Informational buying motives refer to reducing or reversing negative motivations such
as solving or avoiding a problem, or normal depletion.
- Examples of informational products are detergents, babies’ nappies and insurance
products.
Hierarchy-of-effects models consider brand awareness as a prerequisite for brand attitude
formation. They correctly assume that affective responses cannot be formed or that a
purchase cannot take place without having an awareness of the brand.
Hierarchy models do not allow interactions between the different stages, which is very
unlikely. Purchase will lead to experience, which will have an important impact on beliefs
and attitudes, for example. Therefore, to base marketing communications on hierarchy-of-
effects models may not be the most effective or relevant strategy.
Attitude Formation and Change
An attitude is a person’s overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organization,
an ad, etc. In this view, an attitude towards a particular brand (Ab) can be considered as a
measure of how much a person likes or dislikes the brand, or of the extent to which they hold
a favorable or unfavorable view of it.
Attitudes have three components:
The cognitive component reflects knowledge, beliefs and
evaluations of the object;
The affective component represents the feelings associated with
the object;
The behavioral component refers to action readiness (behavioral
intentions) with respect to the object.
These different communications models regarding attitude formation and attitude change can
be classified along two dimensions.8 The first refers to the way attitudes are formed –
primarily cognitive, affective or behavioral; the second is about how the message is
processed. With respect to the latter, several dual-process theories have been developed.
Dual Processing Theory System 1 and 2 thinking
- System 1: Fast thinking (subconscious)
, o System 1 helps us with a million tasks a day, but as it responds based on associative
learning, gut feelings, habits and heuristics, it is not always appropriate or cannot
handle all tasks
- System 2: Slow thinking (conscious)
o The more rational System 2 checks on the intuitive System 1, but as this requires
time and effort, System 2 oftentimes follows System 1, leading to biases such as
when we judge an object on the basis of a characteristic we can easily recall (due to
priming or frequent exposure) rather than on a more diagnostic characteristic.
Elaboration Likelihood Model: distinguishes between central and peripheral processing
depending on how optimal processing conditions are.
Central-route processing: Consumers are willing to elaborate on the information, to
evaluate the arguments and find out what the information really has to offer. Depending
on the quality and credibility of the arguments, consumers will react by producing
counter-, support or neutral arguments, which induce a negative, positive or no attitude
change, respectively.
Peripheral-route processing: The result of the latter is no real information processing,
but an evaluation based on simple, peripheral cues, such as background music, humor, an
attractive source or endorser, the number of arguments used, etc. (Such attitudes do not
necessarily last long)
Processing conditions are defined by Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity (MAO).
Motivation = a willingness to engage in behavior, make decisions, pay attention, process
information. Influenced by consumers needs and goals.
- In order to be persuasive, marketing communications should tap into consumers’
motivational concepts and marketers need to understand what goals consumers are
trying to accomplish by buying the product
Ability = refers to the resources needed to achieve a particular goal. Someone can be
motivated to do something, but lack the resources.
Opportunity = deals with the extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain the
goal set. (Motivated to buy Ice Tea, but store runs out of it, no opportunity to buy it).
The Elaboration Likelihood Model and the effects of the MAO factors on attitude formation
and marketing communications processing are presented in Figure 3.3.21 If motivation,
ability and opportunity are all high, the elaboration likelihood is said to be high and
consumers are expected to engage in central-route processing. On the other hand, if one or
more of the MAO factors is/are low, consumers are more likely to process the information
peripherally. Ads without attractive peripheral cues, but with an easy-to process, product-
related message, might also work under low MAO, simply because not many resources are
required to understand the message and/or the cognitive resources to form counter-arguments
are lacking.
,
Chapter 3: How marketing communications work
Hierarchy-of-effects models
According to traditional hierarchy-of-effects models, consumers go through three different
stages in responding to marketing communications, namely a cognitive, an affective and a
behavioral stage, or a think–feel–do sequence. The task of marketing communications is then
to lead the consumers through these successive stages.
Cognitive: consumers engage in mental (thinking) processes which lead to awareness and
knowledge of the brand communicated. (can be effortless)
Affective: emotional or evaluative responses occur which are associated with the
advertised brand and attitudes towards the brand are formed. (this only formed when need
for evaluation arises)
Behavioral: refers to undertaking actions with respect to the advertised brand, such as
buying it.
Alternative models:
Low- involvement hierarchy of-effects model: consumers, after frequent exposure to
marketing messages, might buy the product, and decide afterwards how they feel about it
(cognitive–behavioral affective hierarchy).
Experiential hierarchy-of-effects model: consumers’ affective responses towards a
product lead them to buy it and, if necessary, they reflect on it later. This would suggest
an affective– behavioral–cognitive sequence.
Vaughn proposed an integration of the different sequence models and presented a model,
known as the Foote–Cone–Belding (FCB) grid. Four different situations are distinguished,
based on two dimensions, i.e. the high–low involvement and the think–feel dimension.
Involvement can be defined as the
importance people attach to a product or a
buying decision, the extent to which one has
to think it over and the level of perceived
risk associated with an inadequate brand
choice.
The think–feel dimension represents a
continuum reflecting the extent to which a
decision is made on a cognitive or an
affective basis.
First quadrant: Classical hierarchy of effects
would hold (high involvement – rational thinking). (loan, computer)
Second quadrant: Decisions of high involvement, but for which less information is
needed. (jewelry, holidays)
Third quadrant: Product decisions are located that require a minimum of cognitive effort
and tend to become routinised because of habit formation. The assumed sequence is first
buying the product, then learning what its major advantages and disadvantages are, and
finally developing an attitude after product or brand usage. (toilet paper)
, Fourth quadrant: Reflects decision-making regarding products which can be termed ‘life’s
little pleasures’. The assumed sequence here is: buy the product, experience an affective
response and gather product knowledge afterwards. (ice cream)
The Rossiter-Percy grid is a modification of the FCB grid which again classifies products
and buying decisions in four categories, based on the dimensions of high–low involvement
and fulfilling a transformational or informational buying motive.
Transformational buying motives consist of positive motivations, such as sensory
gratification, social approval or intellectual stimulation
- Examples of products for which transformational motives prevail are products that
give consumers pleasure, such as ice cream, cosmetics and perfume
Informational buying motives refer to reducing or reversing negative motivations such
as solving or avoiding a problem, or normal depletion.
- Examples of informational products are detergents, babies’ nappies and insurance
products.
Hierarchy-of-effects models consider brand awareness as a prerequisite for brand attitude
formation. They correctly assume that affective responses cannot be formed or that a
purchase cannot take place without having an awareness of the brand.
Hierarchy models do not allow interactions between the different stages, which is very
unlikely. Purchase will lead to experience, which will have an important impact on beliefs
and attitudes, for example. Therefore, to base marketing communications on hierarchy-of-
effects models may not be the most effective or relevant strategy.
Attitude Formation and Change
An attitude is a person’s overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organization,
an ad, etc. In this view, an attitude towards a particular brand (Ab) can be considered as a
measure of how much a person likes or dislikes the brand, or of the extent to which they hold
a favorable or unfavorable view of it.
Attitudes have three components:
The cognitive component reflects knowledge, beliefs and
evaluations of the object;
The affective component represents the feelings associated with
the object;
The behavioral component refers to action readiness (behavioral
intentions) with respect to the object.
These different communications models regarding attitude formation and attitude change can
be classified along two dimensions.8 The first refers to the way attitudes are formed –
primarily cognitive, affective or behavioral; the second is about how the message is
processed. With respect to the latter, several dual-process theories have been developed.
Dual Processing Theory System 1 and 2 thinking
- System 1: Fast thinking (subconscious)
, o System 1 helps us with a million tasks a day, but as it responds based on associative
learning, gut feelings, habits and heuristics, it is not always appropriate or cannot
handle all tasks
- System 2: Slow thinking (conscious)
o The more rational System 2 checks on the intuitive System 1, but as this requires
time and effort, System 2 oftentimes follows System 1, leading to biases such as
when we judge an object on the basis of a characteristic we can easily recall (due to
priming or frequent exposure) rather than on a more diagnostic characteristic.
Elaboration Likelihood Model: distinguishes between central and peripheral processing
depending on how optimal processing conditions are.
Central-route processing: Consumers are willing to elaborate on the information, to
evaluate the arguments and find out what the information really has to offer. Depending
on the quality and credibility of the arguments, consumers will react by producing
counter-, support or neutral arguments, which induce a negative, positive or no attitude
change, respectively.
Peripheral-route processing: The result of the latter is no real information processing,
but an evaluation based on simple, peripheral cues, such as background music, humor, an
attractive source or endorser, the number of arguments used, etc. (Such attitudes do not
necessarily last long)
Processing conditions are defined by Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity (MAO).
Motivation = a willingness to engage in behavior, make decisions, pay attention, process
information. Influenced by consumers needs and goals.
- In order to be persuasive, marketing communications should tap into consumers’
motivational concepts and marketers need to understand what goals consumers are
trying to accomplish by buying the product
Ability = refers to the resources needed to achieve a particular goal. Someone can be
motivated to do something, but lack the resources.
Opportunity = deals with the extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain the
goal set. (Motivated to buy Ice Tea, but store runs out of it, no opportunity to buy it).
The Elaboration Likelihood Model and the effects of the MAO factors on attitude formation
and marketing communications processing are presented in Figure 3.3.21 If motivation,
ability and opportunity are all high, the elaboration likelihood is said to be high and
consumers are expected to engage in central-route processing. On the other hand, if one or
more of the MAO factors is/are low, consumers are more likely to process the information
peripherally. Ads without attractive peripheral cues, but with an easy-to process, product-
related message, might also work under low MAO, simply because not many resources are
required to understand the message and/or the cognitive resources to form counter-arguments
are lacking.
,
