Theme 1: Short Term Memory
Baddeley et al. (2015) - Memory: Chapter 1 - What is Memory?
Approaches to memory:
• The verbal learning approach: relies principally on the learning of lists of words and nonsense syllables
• Gestalt psychology: perception and internal representations
• Schema's: our knowledge of the world is structures and influences the way in which new information is stored and
recalled.
o Models: a method of expressing a theory more precisely, allowing predictions to be made and tested.
• Computer metaphor: encoding, storing and retrieving
Over-simplified version of the model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) - long-term memory can also influence
attention and so sensory memory.
• Sensory memory - brief storage of information within a specific modality
o Iconic memory: the brief storage of visual information (auditory counterpart is echoic memory)
• Aspect of perception
• For visual information, the first few items are often better remembered but for auditory information,
the latter few items are often better remembered (recency effect)
o Masking: a process by which the perception and/or storage of a stimulus is influenced by events occurring
immediately before presentation (forward masking) or after (backward masking)
• Short-term memory (STM) - temporary storage of small amounts of material over brief delays/
o Working memory - a system for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information, which is helpful
in performing complex tasks.
• Long-term memory
o Explicit memory/ declarative memory: open to intentional retrieval. Either episodic - specific events or
semantic - meaning of words/ sensory attributes, general knowledge of how society works
• Semantic and episodic memory are possibly related in the sense that semantic memory is the residue
of many episodes
o Implicit memory/ nondeclarative memory: retrieval of information from long-term memory through
performance rather than explicit conscious recall to subsequent chapters.
• Classical conditioning
• Priming
• Motor skills
, Radvansky G.A. (2017). Chapter 4: Sensory and short-term memory (only the part on ‘Retrieval in short-term
memory’)
3 theories of short-term memory search:
• Parallel search: all items in short-term memory are available at once,and accessed in parallel. This assumes that
contents of short-term memory are either in or close to consciousness. All information would be available regardless of
the size of the search set.
• Serial self-terminating search: going through items one at a time, there would be an increase in response time with an
increase in set size and there would be a difference in slope of the response times for yes and no responses
• Serial exhaustive search: also going through things one at a time, in serial, but continuing when item is found. Would
also mean an increasing response time with an increasing set size, but there would be no difference in slope for yes and
no answers (since you don't stop after you found it). (this is what Sternberg found)
Not everyone agrees that a serial process is involved here. When multiple elements are held in short-term memory, resources
are divided among them - results: as more finely defined cognitive resources are, the less there is available to any one item and
thus longer it takes for retrieval to occur.
It is generally accepted that for any process, both serial and parallel processes can be derived to produce a given outcome. For
every complex memory process there are probably both parallel and serial components intermixed in cascading processes.
Baddeley (2003) - Working memory: looking back and looking forward
Working memory system: central executive and two storage systems - phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
The theoretical concept of working memory assumes that it is a limited capacity system, which temporarily maintains and
stores information, supporting human thought processes by providing an interface between perception, long-term memory and
action. There are many approaches for this memory system.
Baddeley here describes a single multi-component model of working memory.
• The multi-component model of working memory
Many studies argued for the distinction between the short- and long-term memory systems. The most influential model
proposed that information from the environment flows through a series of temporary sensory registers into a limited
capacity short-term store (STS), which feeds information into and out of the LTM. Baddeley and Hitch then proposed a
three-component model that dealt with the limitations of this first model. The three components:
o A control system of limited attentional capacity - the central executive
o Phonological loop, based on sound and language
o Visuospatial sketchpad
Baddeley et al. (2015) - Memory: Chapter 1 - What is Memory?
Approaches to memory:
• The verbal learning approach: relies principally on the learning of lists of words and nonsense syllables
• Gestalt psychology: perception and internal representations
• Schema's: our knowledge of the world is structures and influences the way in which new information is stored and
recalled.
o Models: a method of expressing a theory more precisely, allowing predictions to be made and tested.
• Computer metaphor: encoding, storing and retrieving
Over-simplified version of the model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) - long-term memory can also influence
attention and so sensory memory.
• Sensory memory - brief storage of information within a specific modality
o Iconic memory: the brief storage of visual information (auditory counterpart is echoic memory)
• Aspect of perception
• For visual information, the first few items are often better remembered but for auditory information,
the latter few items are often better remembered (recency effect)
o Masking: a process by which the perception and/or storage of a stimulus is influenced by events occurring
immediately before presentation (forward masking) or after (backward masking)
• Short-term memory (STM) - temporary storage of small amounts of material over brief delays/
o Working memory - a system for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information, which is helpful
in performing complex tasks.
• Long-term memory
o Explicit memory/ declarative memory: open to intentional retrieval. Either episodic - specific events or
semantic - meaning of words/ sensory attributes, general knowledge of how society works
• Semantic and episodic memory are possibly related in the sense that semantic memory is the residue
of many episodes
o Implicit memory/ nondeclarative memory: retrieval of information from long-term memory through
performance rather than explicit conscious recall to subsequent chapters.
• Classical conditioning
• Priming
• Motor skills
, Radvansky G.A. (2017). Chapter 4: Sensory and short-term memory (only the part on ‘Retrieval in short-term
memory’)
3 theories of short-term memory search:
• Parallel search: all items in short-term memory are available at once,and accessed in parallel. This assumes that
contents of short-term memory are either in or close to consciousness. All information would be available regardless of
the size of the search set.
• Serial self-terminating search: going through items one at a time, there would be an increase in response time with an
increase in set size and there would be a difference in slope of the response times for yes and no responses
• Serial exhaustive search: also going through things one at a time, in serial, but continuing when item is found. Would
also mean an increasing response time with an increasing set size, but there would be no difference in slope for yes and
no answers (since you don't stop after you found it). (this is what Sternberg found)
Not everyone agrees that a serial process is involved here. When multiple elements are held in short-term memory, resources
are divided among them - results: as more finely defined cognitive resources are, the less there is available to any one item and
thus longer it takes for retrieval to occur.
It is generally accepted that for any process, both serial and parallel processes can be derived to produce a given outcome. For
every complex memory process there are probably both parallel and serial components intermixed in cascading processes.
Baddeley (2003) - Working memory: looking back and looking forward
Working memory system: central executive and two storage systems - phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
The theoretical concept of working memory assumes that it is a limited capacity system, which temporarily maintains and
stores information, supporting human thought processes by providing an interface between perception, long-term memory and
action. There are many approaches for this memory system.
Baddeley here describes a single multi-component model of working memory.
• The multi-component model of working memory
Many studies argued for the distinction between the short- and long-term memory systems. The most influential model
proposed that information from the environment flows through a series of temporary sensory registers into a limited
capacity short-term store (STS), which feeds information into and out of the LTM. Baddeley and Hitch then proposed a
three-component model that dealt with the limitations of this first model. The three components:
o A control system of limited attentional capacity - the central executive
o Phonological loop, based on sound and language
o Visuospatial sketchpad
