WEEK 1
State: the human community that claims the monopoly (exclusive right) of the use of legitimate
violence within a given territory (a state has it’s own territory)
Nation(hood): refers to a group of people that is connected by a collective identity and solidarity,
because of the same culture/history/language/territory. It’s a political community with sense of
communality. (Sense of belonging/less internal division/loyalty to state) education, media,
symbols
Nationalism: the idea that a state and nation should be congruent, people who see themselves as
part of the same nation should live together in one state
Citizenship: the relationship between the state and an individual, it’s the membership of a political
community, created by rights (voting), obligations/duties (taxes), participation and identity.
Federalism/Federal state: sovereignty is shared between two (or more) autonomous levels of
government, the central government and regional/local governments checks/balances on power &
protecting cultural diversity. Constitutional/political changes require the approval of both levels.
Devolution: shifts of responsibilities and authority from a central government to regional or local
governments. Ultimate authority (changing constitution) still resides with the central government
Multiculturalism: The weakening link between a country's borders and its citizens, driven by
transnational citizenship, migrants' rights, and global mobility, is reshaping traditional ideas of
citizenship and statehood. This shift complicates cultural unity while embracing cultural diversity.
David Easton's political systems theory:
1. Inputs: external factors (individuals, groups, or the public) that influence the political system
by shaping demands (concerns and needs) and support (acceptance of the political system)
2. Political System: This is where inputs are processed. Institutions like legislatures, courts, and
bureaucracies analyze and debate these inputs, transforming demands and support into
decisions and actions.
3. Decisions and Actions: These are the specific policies, laws, or initiatives that result from the
political system’s processing. This step leads to concrete changes (e.g., new laws,
infrastructure projects) that address the needs and demands expressed in the inputs.
4. Outputs: Outputs are the effects of decisions and actions, such as new laws, programs, or
regulations. These outputs affect society.
5. Feedback: Outputs generate new reactions from the public. Positive outcomes might increase
support, while unmet demands or ineffective policies might lead to protests, reduced trust,
or new demands, thus restarting the feedback loop with new inputs.
WEEK 2:
(Political) institutions: formal and informal rules and norms that shape and constrain (political)
behavior of people and organizations.
Democratic backsliding: ‘destabilization of political system and reverting to semi-authoritarian
practices’ (political system becomes more authoritarian (anti-democratic), reducing liberalism and
weakening democratic practices, for instance by undermining checks and balances like the separation
of powers) + Hollowing: ‘declining popular involvement in democracy’ (people participating less in
the democratic system). DB is problematic: less competitive alternation (afwisseling) of
governments: undermining free/fair elections + other democratic principles
Liberal democracy: A system that combines free and fair elections, where everyone can vote and
participate. It includes the rule of law, civil and political rights, and freedoms like freedom of speech.
,illiberal democracy: A system that holds elections, but generally fail to follow the rule of law, protect
individual rights and respect civil liberties.
Democracy: A system of political institutions shaped by both formal and informal rules and norms,
with a focus on: free/fair elections, universal participation, civil liberties and responsible government
Factors for democratization: structural factors (economic development/socio-economic inequalities),
institutions (presidential?), actors and agency (a leaders commitment to democratic principles),
international forces (democratic contagion)
Parliamentary system: the head of government (Prime Minister) is indirectly elected by the
legislature (parliament). Citizens have 1 vote, they vote for Members of Parliament (MPs), who then
select the Prime Minister. There is a fusion of powers (and interdependence: the executive must
maintain the confidence of the legislature), as the Prime Minister and cabinet (executive branch) are
drawn from the legislature. The head of government and head of state are separate roles, often with
a monarch or ceremonial president as the head of state. Elections are flexible and can be called
sooner due to interconnection/disfunction between the different branches of power.
The possibility of early elections encourages parties to cooperate to maintain stability and avoid
losing seats: less polarization. A disadvantage of the parliamentary system is government instability,
often due to coalition negotiations (if no party has a clear majority) or early elections.
Presidential system: the head of government and head of state are the same person (the President),
who is directly elected by the people. There is a strict separation of powers between the executive
and legislative branches, as the President (executive branch) and members of the legislature
(congress) are elected independently (so more independence) citizens have two votes. Elections
are held at fixed intervals, and the President’s term is unaffected by legislative approval or
parliamentary dynamics. Both the president and the legislature need to agree on laws to pass them.
In a presidential system, because the president holds both roles, voters can easily hold them
accountable in the next election based on their performance. Voters can easily pick both their
president and legislative representatives, gives them more clarity for who is responsible for what in
the government. In a presidential system, elections are "winner-takes-all," meaning only one
candidate wins, which can create political polarization between parties and make it harder for them
to work together. The president and congress are elected separately and serve fixed terms, so if they
disagree, it can prevent laws from being passed and prevents them from moving forward/making
decisions: gridlock. This also makes it harder to govern effectively and protect democratic norms.
Semi-presidential: has both a president (head of state), directly elected by the people for a fixed
term, and a prime minister (head of government), appointed by the president but must have the
support of the parliament to stay in office. The president handles major state issues, while the prime
minister runs daily governance and is accountable to parliament.
Majoritarian Democracy: power is held by a single party, often with limited local autonomy. A
disproportional electoral system favors larger parties, creating a two-party system where the largest
party can gain a majority even without the majority of the vote. This system typically has a unitary
state structure, a unicameral (1) legislature (lawmakers), and executive dominance (government has
more power over decisions than parliament). This system results in faster decision-making and policy
changes, as the majority party has clear control over the legislature and executive. However, it is less
inclusive, as decisions may prioritize the majority and often exclude minority views. With a single
ruling party, it is easier for voters to identify who is responsible for policies and outcomes. The
winner-takes-all approach can deepen divisions within society, especially in diverse populations.
, -Plurality voting (FPTP): candidate/party receiving the largest number of votes secures a seat (even if
<50%)
-Majority voting (two-round): candidate/party wins seat if more than 50% of all votes (requires >
50%). If no candidate has this, a second round is held between the two leading candidates.
-Alternative voting: ranked-choice voting, allows voters to rank candidates in order of preference,
and candidates are eliminated in rounds until one receives a majority of first-choice votes.
Consensus Democracy: It uses a proportional electoral system, ensuring seats align with the votes
parties receive, which encourages a multiparty system and supports minority parties. This prioritizes
inclusivity and cooperation, protecting minority rights through coalition governments and federalism.
This structure often includes a federal system and a bicameral (2) legislature (more checks/balances),
balancing power between the executive and legislature. This system tends to produce slower
decision-making, as broad agreements are needed for policy changes, but it results in more stable
and widely supported policies, focusing on the interests of all groups. A gridlock happens when
political parties cant reach an agreement, preventing decisions from being passed and implemented.
-Party list PR: each party obtains seats in proportion to the votes it receives, all parties are on a list.
-Single transferable voting: voters rank candidates in order of preference in districts with multiple
seats, and votes are transferred to other candidates if a chosen candidate is elected or eliminated,
making the results more fair and proportional. This system allows voters to express a more nuanced
opinion about the candidates running for office.
-Mixed-member proportional: combines local district elections, the local (constituency: kiesdistrict)
vote chooses which individual candidate gets the seat in a district, and the party-list vote determines
how many seats a party gets in total. This system ensures that the overall number of seats a party
gets reflects the second vote, making it proportional.
In proportional representation (PR) systems, voters typically choose a party, not an individual
candidate, which weakens the direct connection between voters and their representatives. PR
systems do often promote diversity because parties can ensure women and ethnic minorities are
included on their candidate lists, increasing their chances of election. In majoritarian systems, like
single-member districts, voters directly select candidates, fostering a stronger connection and greater
accountability between representatives and their electorate.
Mixed systems/semi-proportional systems
-Mixed Member Majoritarian (MMM): voters cast two votes: the first is a F-P-T-P vote for a local
candidate, where the person with the most votes wins a seat in parliament, and the second for a
political party, which receives extra seats based on the number of votes they get; however, the two
votes are separate, and a party's total number of seats is not adjusted to reflect their percentage of
party votes. In MMM, there’s no adjustment to balance things out. If a big party wins many local
seats, they end up with more seats overall, even if their party vote is smaller. This systems reduces
the influence of smaller parties because of the F-P-T-P vote.
-Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV): voters cast one vote: they choose a candidate in multi-
member districts, where more than one candidate is elected per district. However, even though
multiple candidates are elected, the way the seats are allocated isn’t completely proportional to how
many votes each party gets: it's based on how many individual candidates from each party win the
most votes in each district. This means that some parties can win more seats than their share of
votes* would suggest, while other parties might win fewer seats than their share of votes.
State: the human community that claims the monopoly (exclusive right) of the use of legitimate
violence within a given territory (a state has it’s own territory)
Nation(hood): refers to a group of people that is connected by a collective identity and solidarity,
because of the same culture/history/language/territory. It’s a political community with sense of
communality. (Sense of belonging/less internal division/loyalty to state) education, media,
symbols
Nationalism: the idea that a state and nation should be congruent, people who see themselves as
part of the same nation should live together in one state
Citizenship: the relationship between the state and an individual, it’s the membership of a political
community, created by rights (voting), obligations/duties (taxes), participation and identity.
Federalism/Federal state: sovereignty is shared between two (or more) autonomous levels of
government, the central government and regional/local governments checks/balances on power &
protecting cultural diversity. Constitutional/political changes require the approval of both levels.
Devolution: shifts of responsibilities and authority from a central government to regional or local
governments. Ultimate authority (changing constitution) still resides with the central government
Multiculturalism: The weakening link between a country's borders and its citizens, driven by
transnational citizenship, migrants' rights, and global mobility, is reshaping traditional ideas of
citizenship and statehood. This shift complicates cultural unity while embracing cultural diversity.
David Easton's political systems theory:
1. Inputs: external factors (individuals, groups, or the public) that influence the political system
by shaping demands (concerns and needs) and support (acceptance of the political system)
2. Political System: This is where inputs are processed. Institutions like legislatures, courts, and
bureaucracies analyze and debate these inputs, transforming demands and support into
decisions and actions.
3. Decisions and Actions: These are the specific policies, laws, or initiatives that result from the
political system’s processing. This step leads to concrete changes (e.g., new laws,
infrastructure projects) that address the needs and demands expressed in the inputs.
4. Outputs: Outputs are the effects of decisions and actions, such as new laws, programs, or
regulations. These outputs affect society.
5. Feedback: Outputs generate new reactions from the public. Positive outcomes might increase
support, while unmet demands or ineffective policies might lead to protests, reduced trust,
or new demands, thus restarting the feedback loop with new inputs.
WEEK 2:
(Political) institutions: formal and informal rules and norms that shape and constrain (political)
behavior of people and organizations.
Democratic backsliding: ‘destabilization of political system and reverting to semi-authoritarian
practices’ (political system becomes more authoritarian (anti-democratic), reducing liberalism and
weakening democratic practices, for instance by undermining checks and balances like the separation
of powers) + Hollowing: ‘declining popular involvement in democracy’ (people participating less in
the democratic system). DB is problematic: less competitive alternation (afwisseling) of
governments: undermining free/fair elections + other democratic principles
Liberal democracy: A system that combines free and fair elections, where everyone can vote and
participate. It includes the rule of law, civil and political rights, and freedoms like freedom of speech.
,illiberal democracy: A system that holds elections, but generally fail to follow the rule of law, protect
individual rights and respect civil liberties.
Democracy: A system of political institutions shaped by both formal and informal rules and norms,
with a focus on: free/fair elections, universal participation, civil liberties and responsible government
Factors for democratization: structural factors (economic development/socio-economic inequalities),
institutions (presidential?), actors and agency (a leaders commitment to democratic principles),
international forces (democratic contagion)
Parliamentary system: the head of government (Prime Minister) is indirectly elected by the
legislature (parliament). Citizens have 1 vote, they vote for Members of Parliament (MPs), who then
select the Prime Minister. There is a fusion of powers (and interdependence: the executive must
maintain the confidence of the legislature), as the Prime Minister and cabinet (executive branch) are
drawn from the legislature. The head of government and head of state are separate roles, often with
a monarch or ceremonial president as the head of state. Elections are flexible and can be called
sooner due to interconnection/disfunction between the different branches of power.
The possibility of early elections encourages parties to cooperate to maintain stability and avoid
losing seats: less polarization. A disadvantage of the parliamentary system is government instability,
often due to coalition negotiations (if no party has a clear majority) or early elections.
Presidential system: the head of government and head of state are the same person (the President),
who is directly elected by the people. There is a strict separation of powers between the executive
and legislative branches, as the President (executive branch) and members of the legislature
(congress) are elected independently (so more independence) citizens have two votes. Elections
are held at fixed intervals, and the President’s term is unaffected by legislative approval or
parliamentary dynamics. Both the president and the legislature need to agree on laws to pass them.
In a presidential system, because the president holds both roles, voters can easily hold them
accountable in the next election based on their performance. Voters can easily pick both their
president and legislative representatives, gives them more clarity for who is responsible for what in
the government. In a presidential system, elections are "winner-takes-all," meaning only one
candidate wins, which can create political polarization between parties and make it harder for them
to work together. The president and congress are elected separately and serve fixed terms, so if they
disagree, it can prevent laws from being passed and prevents them from moving forward/making
decisions: gridlock. This also makes it harder to govern effectively and protect democratic norms.
Semi-presidential: has both a president (head of state), directly elected by the people for a fixed
term, and a prime minister (head of government), appointed by the president but must have the
support of the parliament to stay in office. The president handles major state issues, while the prime
minister runs daily governance and is accountable to parliament.
Majoritarian Democracy: power is held by a single party, often with limited local autonomy. A
disproportional electoral system favors larger parties, creating a two-party system where the largest
party can gain a majority even without the majority of the vote. This system typically has a unitary
state structure, a unicameral (1) legislature (lawmakers), and executive dominance (government has
more power over decisions than parliament). This system results in faster decision-making and policy
changes, as the majority party has clear control over the legislature and executive. However, it is less
inclusive, as decisions may prioritize the majority and often exclude minority views. With a single
ruling party, it is easier for voters to identify who is responsible for policies and outcomes. The
winner-takes-all approach can deepen divisions within society, especially in diverse populations.
, -Plurality voting (FPTP): candidate/party receiving the largest number of votes secures a seat (even if
<50%)
-Majority voting (two-round): candidate/party wins seat if more than 50% of all votes (requires >
50%). If no candidate has this, a second round is held between the two leading candidates.
-Alternative voting: ranked-choice voting, allows voters to rank candidates in order of preference,
and candidates are eliminated in rounds until one receives a majority of first-choice votes.
Consensus Democracy: It uses a proportional electoral system, ensuring seats align with the votes
parties receive, which encourages a multiparty system and supports minority parties. This prioritizes
inclusivity and cooperation, protecting minority rights through coalition governments and federalism.
This structure often includes a federal system and a bicameral (2) legislature (more checks/balances),
balancing power between the executive and legislature. This system tends to produce slower
decision-making, as broad agreements are needed for policy changes, but it results in more stable
and widely supported policies, focusing on the interests of all groups. A gridlock happens when
political parties cant reach an agreement, preventing decisions from being passed and implemented.
-Party list PR: each party obtains seats in proportion to the votes it receives, all parties are on a list.
-Single transferable voting: voters rank candidates in order of preference in districts with multiple
seats, and votes are transferred to other candidates if a chosen candidate is elected or eliminated,
making the results more fair and proportional. This system allows voters to express a more nuanced
opinion about the candidates running for office.
-Mixed-member proportional: combines local district elections, the local (constituency: kiesdistrict)
vote chooses which individual candidate gets the seat in a district, and the party-list vote determines
how many seats a party gets in total. This system ensures that the overall number of seats a party
gets reflects the second vote, making it proportional.
In proportional representation (PR) systems, voters typically choose a party, not an individual
candidate, which weakens the direct connection between voters and their representatives. PR
systems do often promote diversity because parties can ensure women and ethnic minorities are
included on their candidate lists, increasing their chances of election. In majoritarian systems, like
single-member districts, voters directly select candidates, fostering a stronger connection and greater
accountability between representatives and their electorate.
Mixed systems/semi-proportional systems
-Mixed Member Majoritarian (MMM): voters cast two votes: the first is a F-P-T-P vote for a local
candidate, where the person with the most votes wins a seat in parliament, and the second for a
political party, which receives extra seats based on the number of votes they get; however, the two
votes are separate, and a party's total number of seats is not adjusted to reflect their percentage of
party votes. In MMM, there’s no adjustment to balance things out. If a big party wins many local
seats, they end up with more seats overall, even if their party vote is smaller. This systems reduces
the influence of smaller parties because of the F-P-T-P vote.
-Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV): voters cast one vote: they choose a candidate in multi-
member districts, where more than one candidate is elected per district. However, even though
multiple candidates are elected, the way the seats are allocated isn’t completely proportional to how
many votes each party gets: it's based on how many individual candidates from each party win the
most votes in each district. This means that some parties can win more seats than their share of
votes* would suggest, while other parties might win fewer seats than their share of votes.
