6.1
Reflexes are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. They
tend to be simpler than instincts, involve the activity of specific body parts and systems
(e.g., the knee-jerk reflex and the contraction of the pupil in bright light), and involve
more primitive centers of the central nervous system (e.g., the spinal cord and the
medulla)
instincts are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as
maturation and the change of seasons. They are more complex patterns of behavior,
involve movement of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity and migration), and
involve higher brain centers.
learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from
experience, learning involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience.
Associative learning occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or
events that occur together in the environment.
In classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, organisms learn to
associate events—or stimuli—that repeatedly happen together.
In operant conditioning, a response is associated with a consequence. This dog has
learned that certain behaviors result in receiving a treat.
Observational learning extends the effective range of both classical and operant
conditioning. In contrast to classical and operant conditioning, in which learning occurs
only through direct experience, observational learning is the process of watching others
and then imitating what they do.
A lot of learning among humans and other animals comes from observational learning.
6.2
Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is
best known for his experiments in classical conditioning
Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by accident.
Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist.
,Physiologists study the life processes of organisms, from the molecular level to the
level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms.
In his studies with dogs, Pavlov measured the amount of saliva produced in response to
various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not
only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl,
and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to food in the
mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don’t naturally salivate at
the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps.
Pavlov designed a series of carefully controlled experiments to see which stimuli would
cause the dogs to salivate. He was able to train the dogs to salivate in response to
stimuli that clearly had nothing to do with food, such as the sound of a bell, a light, and a
touch on the leg.
The meat powder in this situation was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus
that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs’ salivation was an
unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an
unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give
the dogs the meat powder
The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally
elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not salivate when they just heard
the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs.
the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that
elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response
(CR).
, Pairing a new neutral stimulus (“squeak”) with the conditioned stimulus (“zzhzhz”) is
called higher-order conditioning, or second-order conditioning. This means you are
using the conditioned stimulus of the can opener to condition another stimulus
Reflexes are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. They
tend to be simpler than instincts, involve the activity of specific body parts and systems
(e.g., the knee-jerk reflex and the contraction of the pupil in bright light), and involve
more primitive centers of the central nervous system (e.g., the spinal cord and the
medulla)
instincts are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as
maturation and the change of seasons. They are more complex patterns of behavior,
involve movement of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity and migration), and
involve higher brain centers.
learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from
experience, learning involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience.
Associative learning occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or
events that occur together in the environment.
In classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, organisms learn to
associate events—or stimuli—that repeatedly happen together.
In operant conditioning, a response is associated with a consequence. This dog has
learned that certain behaviors result in receiving a treat.
Observational learning extends the effective range of both classical and operant
conditioning. In contrast to classical and operant conditioning, in which learning occurs
only through direct experience, observational learning is the process of watching others
and then imitating what they do.
A lot of learning among humans and other animals comes from observational learning.
6.2
Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is
best known for his experiments in classical conditioning
Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by accident.
Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist.
,Physiologists study the life processes of organisms, from the molecular level to the
level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms.
In his studies with dogs, Pavlov measured the amount of saliva produced in response to
various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not
only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl,
and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to food in the
mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don’t naturally salivate at
the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps.
Pavlov designed a series of carefully controlled experiments to see which stimuli would
cause the dogs to salivate. He was able to train the dogs to salivate in response to
stimuli that clearly had nothing to do with food, such as the sound of a bell, a light, and a
touch on the leg.
The meat powder in this situation was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus
that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs’ salivation was an
unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an
unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give
the dogs the meat powder
The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally
elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not salivate when they just heard
the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs.
the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that
elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response
(CR).
, Pairing a new neutral stimulus (“squeak”) with the conditioned stimulus (“zzhzhz”) is
called higher-order conditioning, or second-order conditioning. This means you are
using the conditioned stimulus of the can opener to condition another stimulus
