Zoë Nicasie - 2024
Samenvatting Micro-economie
Inhoudsopgave
1 Inleiding ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5
1.1 Ten principles of economics __________________________________________________________________________ 5
1.1.1 Principe 1: Mensen moeten keuzes maken _________________________________________________________ 5
1.1.2 Principe 2: De kosten van iets worden bepaald door datgene wat we opgeven om het te krijgen _________ 5
1.1.3 Principe 3: Rationele mensen denken in de marge __________________________________________________ 6
1.1.4 Principe 4: Mensen reageren op prikkels/incentives _________________________________________________ 6
1.2 De markt en marktvormen ____________________________________________________________________________ 6
1.2.1 Marktwerking ____________________________________________________________________________________ 6
2 Vraag & aanbod _________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1 Vraag _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.1 Inleiding_________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.2 Enkele begrippen ________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.3 Prijseffecten _____________________________________________________________________________________ 9
2.1.4 Marktvraag ______________________________________________________________________________________ 9
2.2 Aanbod ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 10
2.2.1 Marktaanbod ___________________________________________________________________________________ 10
2.3 Marktevenwicht ____________________________________________________________________________________ 11
3 Elasticiteit _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1 Prijselasticiteit van de vraag _________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1.1 Definitie ________________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1.2 Boogelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1.3 Determinanten _________________________________________________________________________________ 13
3.1.4 Puntelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 13
3.1.5 Vorm van de vraagcurve _________________________________________________________________________ 14
3.1.6 Inkomenselasticiteit ____________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.1.7 Kruiselasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2 Prijselasticiteit van het aanbod _______________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.1 Definitie ________________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.2 Determinanten _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.3 Boogelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.4 Puntelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
4 Consumentengedrag___________________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.1 Het standaard economische model __________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2 De budgetbeperking – ‘kan’ __________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2.1 Budgetbeperking ________________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2.2 Opportuniteitskost ______________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2.3 Verandering in inkomen _________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.2.4 Verandering in prijs______________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.3 De voorkeuren – ‘wil’ ________________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.3.1 Axioma’s _______________________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.3.2 Indifferentiecurves ______________________________________________________________________________ 19
4.3.3 Nut en marginaal nut ____________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.3.4 Marginale substitutievoet ________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.4 Keuze (optimalisatie) – ‘doe’ _________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.4.1 Evenwicht ______________________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.4.2 Verandering in inkomen _________________________________________________________________________ 21
4.4.3 Verandering in prijs______________________________________________________________________________ 22
, 4.4.4 Inkomens- en substitutie-effect __________________________________________________________________ 22
5 Producentengedrag (competitieve markten) ____________________________________________________________ 24
5.1 Het standaard economische model __________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2 Productie en kosten _________________________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2.1 Productiefactoren ______________________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2.2 Korte termijn ___________________________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2.3 Kosten _________________________________________________________________________________________ 25
5.2.3.1 Totale kosten _______________________________________________________________________________ 25
5.2.3.2 Soorten kosten _____________________________________________________________________________ 25
5.2.3.3 Gemiddelde totale kosten (ATC) en marginale kosten (MC) _____________________________________ 25
5.2.3.4 Gemiddelde variabele kosten (AVC) en gemiddelde vaste kosten (AFC) __________________________ 26
5.2.3.5 Meest typische vorm van de kostencurves_____________________________________________________ 26
5.2.3.6 Kostencurves KT vs LT _______________________________________________________________________ 26
5.3 Totale opbrengst (TR) ________________________________________________________________________________ 27
5.3.1 TR in volmaakte concurrentie ____________________________________________________________________ 27
5.3.2 Maximale winst in volmaakte concurrentie ________________________________________________________ 27
5.4 Individuele aanbodcurve en marktaanbod ____________________________________________________________ 28
5.4.1 Individuele aanbodcurve op KT ___________________________________________________________________ 28
5.4.2 Individuele aanbodcurve op LT ___________________________________________________________________ 29
5.4.3 Marktaanbod ___________________________________________________________________________________ 29
6 Productiebeslissingen _________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.1 Gedrag producent __________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.2 Isokwant ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.2.1 Definitie ________________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.2.2 Marginale transformatievoet _____________________________________________________________________ 30
6.3 Isokost _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4 Keuze (optimalisatie) ________________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4.1 Minimalisatie kosten ____________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4.2 Maximalisatie productie _________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4.3 Evenwicht ______________________________________________________________________________________ 32
7 Marktefficiëntie________________________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.1 Normatieve vs. Positieve economie___________________________________________________________________ 33
7.1.1 Vergelijking _____________________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.1.2 Pareto-efficiëntie _______________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.2 Consumenten- en producentensurplus _______________________________________________________________ 33
7.2.1 Consumentensurplus ___________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.2.2 Producentensurplus ____________________________________________________________________________ 34
7.3 Marktefficiëntie _____________________________________________________________________________________ 34
8 Behavioural economics ________________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1 Behavioural biases __________________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.1 Biases I ________________________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.2 Biases II: Heuristieken ___________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.2.1 Anchoring (ankeren) _________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.2.2 Availability heuristic (& bias) _________________________________________________________________ 37
8.1.2.3 Representativeness heuristic (& bias) _________________________________________________________ 37
8.1.2.4 Framing ____________________________________________________________________________________ 38
8.1.2.5 Sunk cost fallacy ____________________________________________________________________________ 38
8.1.2.6 Bracketing __________________________________________________________________________________ 39
8.1.2.7 Teveel keuze ________________________________________________________________________________ 39
8.1.2.8 Endowment effect (loss aversion) ____________________________________________________________ 39
2
,9 Monopolie _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 40
9.1 Wanneer ontstaan monopolies? _____________________________________________________________________ 40
9.2 Prijs- en outputbeslissingen onder monopolie _________________________________________________________ 40
9.2.1 Vraag van de individuele onderneming ____________________________________________________________ 40
9.2.2 Winstmaximalisatie bij monopolie ________________________________________________________________ 42
9.2.3 Opbrengstmaximalisatie bij monopolie ___________________________________________________________ 42
9.2.4 Welvaartskost van monopolie ____________________________________________________________________ 43
9.2.5 Prijsdiscriminatie _______________________________________________________________________________ 43
9.2.5.1 Toepassing _________________________________________________________________________________ 43
10 Monopolistische concurrentie ________________________________________________________________________ 44
10.1 Prijs- en outputbeslissingen _______________________________________________________________________ 44
10.1.1 Vraag van de individuele onderneming __________________________________________________________ 44
10.1.2 Winstmaximalisatie bij monopolistische concurrentie____________________________________________ 44
10.2 Reclame en branding ______________________________________________________________________________ 45
11 Oligopolie ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.1 Concentratie _____________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.2 Evenwicht ________________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.3 Geen kartel _______________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.3.1 Speltheorie ___________________________________________________________________________________ 47
11.3.1.1 Tacit collusion _____________________________________________________________________________ 47
11.3.1.2 Repeated games ___________________________________________________________________________ 47
12 Interdependentie & voordelen van handel _____________________________________________________________ 49
12.1 Productiemogelijkhedencurve _____________________________________________________________________ 49
12.1.1 Opportuniteitskost & vorm PPF _________________________________________________________________ 49
12.1.2 Verschuivingen van de PPF_____________________________________________________________________ 49
12.2 Handel ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
12.2.1 Elke partij is beter in iets dan de andere partij ____________________________________________________ 50
12.2.2 Eén van de partijen is productiever in alles ______________________________________________________ 51
12.3 Comparatieve voordelen __________________________________________________________________________ 51
12.4 Determinanten van (internationale) handel __________________________________________________________ 53
12.4.1 Winnaars en verliezers bij internationale handel – in geval van export ______________________________ 53
12.4.2 Winnaars en verliezers bij internationale handel – in geval van import ______________________________ 54
13 Publieke goederen & verdienstegoederen (merit goods) _______________________________________________ 55
13.1 Soorten goederen _________________________________________________________________________________ 55
13.1.1 Publieke goederen (public goods) ______________________________________________________________ 55
13.1.2 Gemeenschappelijke hulpbronnen (common resources) _________________________________________ 56
13.1.3 Merit goods (verdienstegoederen) ______________________________________________________________ 56
14 Externaliteiten en marktfalen_________________________________________________________________________ 57
14.1 Externe effecten __________________________________________________________________________________ 57
14.2 Marktinefficiëntie _________________________________________________________________________________ 57
14.2.1 Internaliseren van externe kosten ______________________________________________________________ 58
14.2.2 Maatschappelijke welvaart bij positief extern effect ______________________________________________ 58
14.3 Private oplossingen voor externe effecten ___________________________________________________________ 58
14.4 Publieke oplossingen voor externe effecten _________________________________________________________ 58
14.4.1 Regulering ____________________________________________________________________________________ 59
14.4.2 Belasting (& subsidies) ________________________________________________________________________ 59
15 Asymmetrische informatie ___________________________________________________________________________ 60
3
, 15.1 Principal-Agent relatie _____________________________________________________________________________ 60
15.2 Perfecte <> imperfecte informatie __________________________________________________________________ 60
15.2.1 Hidden actions & moral hazard _________________________________________________________________ 60
15.2.2 Hidden characteristics & Adverse selection _____________________________________________________ 60
15.2.3 Signaling _____________________________________________________________________________________ 61
4
Samenvatting Micro-economie
Inhoudsopgave
1 Inleiding ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5
1.1 Ten principles of economics __________________________________________________________________________ 5
1.1.1 Principe 1: Mensen moeten keuzes maken _________________________________________________________ 5
1.1.2 Principe 2: De kosten van iets worden bepaald door datgene wat we opgeven om het te krijgen _________ 5
1.1.3 Principe 3: Rationele mensen denken in de marge __________________________________________________ 6
1.1.4 Principe 4: Mensen reageren op prikkels/incentives _________________________________________________ 6
1.2 De markt en marktvormen ____________________________________________________________________________ 6
1.2.1 Marktwerking ____________________________________________________________________________________ 6
2 Vraag & aanbod _________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1 Vraag _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.1 Inleiding_________________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.2 Enkele begrippen ________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.3 Prijseffecten _____________________________________________________________________________________ 9
2.1.4 Marktvraag ______________________________________________________________________________________ 9
2.2 Aanbod ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 10
2.2.1 Marktaanbod ___________________________________________________________________________________ 10
2.3 Marktevenwicht ____________________________________________________________________________________ 11
3 Elasticiteit _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1 Prijselasticiteit van de vraag _________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1.1 Definitie ________________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1.2 Boogelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1.3 Determinanten _________________________________________________________________________________ 13
3.1.4 Puntelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 13
3.1.5 Vorm van de vraagcurve _________________________________________________________________________ 14
3.1.6 Inkomenselasticiteit ____________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.1.7 Kruiselasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2 Prijselasticiteit van het aanbod _______________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.1 Definitie ________________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.2 Determinanten _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.3 Boogelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
3.2.4 Puntelasticiteit _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
4 Consumentengedrag___________________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.1 Het standaard economische model __________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2 De budgetbeperking – ‘kan’ __________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2.1 Budgetbeperking ________________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2.2 Opportuniteitskost ______________________________________________________________________________ 17
4.2.3 Verandering in inkomen _________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.2.4 Verandering in prijs______________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.3 De voorkeuren – ‘wil’ ________________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.3.1 Axioma’s _______________________________________________________________________________________ 18
4.3.2 Indifferentiecurves ______________________________________________________________________________ 19
4.3.3 Nut en marginaal nut ____________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.3.4 Marginale substitutievoet ________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.4 Keuze (optimalisatie) – ‘doe’ _________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.4.1 Evenwicht ______________________________________________________________________________________ 20
4.4.2 Verandering in inkomen _________________________________________________________________________ 21
4.4.3 Verandering in prijs______________________________________________________________________________ 22
, 4.4.4 Inkomens- en substitutie-effect __________________________________________________________________ 22
5 Producentengedrag (competitieve markten) ____________________________________________________________ 24
5.1 Het standaard economische model __________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2 Productie en kosten _________________________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2.1 Productiefactoren ______________________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2.2 Korte termijn ___________________________________________________________________________________ 24
5.2.3 Kosten _________________________________________________________________________________________ 25
5.2.3.1 Totale kosten _______________________________________________________________________________ 25
5.2.3.2 Soorten kosten _____________________________________________________________________________ 25
5.2.3.3 Gemiddelde totale kosten (ATC) en marginale kosten (MC) _____________________________________ 25
5.2.3.4 Gemiddelde variabele kosten (AVC) en gemiddelde vaste kosten (AFC) __________________________ 26
5.2.3.5 Meest typische vorm van de kostencurves_____________________________________________________ 26
5.2.3.6 Kostencurves KT vs LT _______________________________________________________________________ 26
5.3 Totale opbrengst (TR) ________________________________________________________________________________ 27
5.3.1 TR in volmaakte concurrentie ____________________________________________________________________ 27
5.3.2 Maximale winst in volmaakte concurrentie ________________________________________________________ 27
5.4 Individuele aanbodcurve en marktaanbod ____________________________________________________________ 28
5.4.1 Individuele aanbodcurve op KT ___________________________________________________________________ 28
5.4.2 Individuele aanbodcurve op LT ___________________________________________________________________ 29
5.4.3 Marktaanbod ___________________________________________________________________________________ 29
6 Productiebeslissingen _________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.1 Gedrag producent __________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.2 Isokwant ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.2.1 Definitie ________________________________________________________________________________________ 30
6.2.2 Marginale transformatievoet _____________________________________________________________________ 30
6.3 Isokost _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4 Keuze (optimalisatie) ________________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4.1 Minimalisatie kosten ____________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4.2 Maximalisatie productie _________________________________________________________________________ 31
6.4.3 Evenwicht ______________________________________________________________________________________ 32
7 Marktefficiëntie________________________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.1 Normatieve vs. Positieve economie___________________________________________________________________ 33
7.1.1 Vergelijking _____________________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.1.2 Pareto-efficiëntie _______________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.2 Consumenten- en producentensurplus _______________________________________________________________ 33
7.2.1 Consumentensurplus ___________________________________________________________________________ 33
7.2.2 Producentensurplus ____________________________________________________________________________ 34
7.3 Marktefficiëntie _____________________________________________________________________________________ 34
8 Behavioural economics ________________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1 Behavioural biases __________________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.1 Biases I ________________________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.2 Biases II: Heuristieken ___________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.2.1 Anchoring (ankeren) _________________________________________________________________________ 36
8.1.2.2 Availability heuristic (& bias) _________________________________________________________________ 37
8.1.2.3 Representativeness heuristic (& bias) _________________________________________________________ 37
8.1.2.4 Framing ____________________________________________________________________________________ 38
8.1.2.5 Sunk cost fallacy ____________________________________________________________________________ 38
8.1.2.6 Bracketing __________________________________________________________________________________ 39
8.1.2.7 Teveel keuze ________________________________________________________________________________ 39
8.1.2.8 Endowment effect (loss aversion) ____________________________________________________________ 39
2
,9 Monopolie _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 40
9.1 Wanneer ontstaan monopolies? _____________________________________________________________________ 40
9.2 Prijs- en outputbeslissingen onder monopolie _________________________________________________________ 40
9.2.1 Vraag van de individuele onderneming ____________________________________________________________ 40
9.2.2 Winstmaximalisatie bij monopolie ________________________________________________________________ 42
9.2.3 Opbrengstmaximalisatie bij monopolie ___________________________________________________________ 42
9.2.4 Welvaartskost van monopolie ____________________________________________________________________ 43
9.2.5 Prijsdiscriminatie _______________________________________________________________________________ 43
9.2.5.1 Toepassing _________________________________________________________________________________ 43
10 Monopolistische concurrentie ________________________________________________________________________ 44
10.1 Prijs- en outputbeslissingen _______________________________________________________________________ 44
10.1.1 Vraag van de individuele onderneming __________________________________________________________ 44
10.1.2 Winstmaximalisatie bij monopolistische concurrentie____________________________________________ 44
10.2 Reclame en branding ______________________________________________________________________________ 45
11 Oligopolie ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.1 Concentratie _____________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.2 Evenwicht ________________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.3 Geen kartel _______________________________________________________________________________________ 46
11.3.1 Speltheorie ___________________________________________________________________________________ 47
11.3.1.1 Tacit collusion _____________________________________________________________________________ 47
11.3.1.2 Repeated games ___________________________________________________________________________ 47
12 Interdependentie & voordelen van handel _____________________________________________________________ 49
12.1 Productiemogelijkhedencurve _____________________________________________________________________ 49
12.1.1 Opportuniteitskost & vorm PPF _________________________________________________________________ 49
12.1.2 Verschuivingen van de PPF_____________________________________________________________________ 49
12.2 Handel ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
12.2.1 Elke partij is beter in iets dan de andere partij ____________________________________________________ 50
12.2.2 Eén van de partijen is productiever in alles ______________________________________________________ 51
12.3 Comparatieve voordelen __________________________________________________________________________ 51
12.4 Determinanten van (internationale) handel __________________________________________________________ 53
12.4.1 Winnaars en verliezers bij internationale handel – in geval van export ______________________________ 53
12.4.2 Winnaars en verliezers bij internationale handel – in geval van import ______________________________ 54
13 Publieke goederen & verdienstegoederen (merit goods) _______________________________________________ 55
13.1 Soorten goederen _________________________________________________________________________________ 55
13.1.1 Publieke goederen (public goods) ______________________________________________________________ 55
13.1.2 Gemeenschappelijke hulpbronnen (common resources) _________________________________________ 56
13.1.3 Merit goods (verdienstegoederen) ______________________________________________________________ 56
14 Externaliteiten en marktfalen_________________________________________________________________________ 57
14.1 Externe effecten __________________________________________________________________________________ 57
14.2 Marktinefficiëntie _________________________________________________________________________________ 57
14.2.1 Internaliseren van externe kosten ______________________________________________________________ 58
14.2.2 Maatschappelijke welvaart bij positief extern effect ______________________________________________ 58
14.3 Private oplossingen voor externe effecten ___________________________________________________________ 58
14.4 Publieke oplossingen voor externe effecten _________________________________________________________ 58
14.4.1 Regulering ____________________________________________________________________________________ 59
14.4.2 Belasting (& subsidies) ________________________________________________________________________ 59
15 Asymmetrische informatie ___________________________________________________________________________ 60
3
, 15.1 Principal-Agent relatie _____________________________________________________________________________ 60
15.2 Perfecte <> imperfecte informatie __________________________________________________________________ 60
15.2.1 Hidden actions & moral hazard _________________________________________________________________ 60
15.2.2 Hidden characteristics & Adverse selection _____________________________________________________ 60
15.2.3 Signaling _____________________________________________________________________________________ 61
4
