Inhoud
Hoofdstuk 1: The chemistry of living things ...............................................................................6
Life depends on water ..........................................................................................................6
The importance of hydrogen ions ..........................................................................................6
The organic molecules of living organisms ............................................................................6
Carbohydrates: used for energy and structural support .........................................................6
Lipids: insoluble in water ......................................................................................................7
Proteins: complex structures constructed of amino acids .....................................................7
Nucleic acids store genetic information ................................................................................7
ATP carries energy dia34 ......................................................................................................7
Hoofdstuk 2: Structure and function of cells .............................................................................8
Cells are classified according to their internal organization....................................................8
Molecules cross the plasma membrane in several ways ........................................................8
Cells use and transform matter and energy ...........................................................................9
Hoofdstuk 3: From cells to organ systems .............................................................................. 10
Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces & cavities ................................................................. 10
Connective tissue supports and connects body parts.......................................................... 10
Muscle tissues contract to produce movement ................................................................... 11
Nervous tissue transmits impulses ..................................................................................... 11
Organs and organ systems perform complex functions ....................................................... 11
The skin as an organ system ............................................................................................... 11
Hoofdstuk 4: The skeletal system ........................................................................................... 12
The skeletal system consists of connective tissue ............................................................... 12
Bones develop from cartilage ............................................................................................. 12
Mature bone undergoes remodelling and repair................................................................... 12
Bones fit together to form the skeleton................................................................................ 12
Joints form connections between bones ............................................................................. 12
Diseases and disorders of the skeletal system .................................................................... 12
Hoofdstuk 5: The muscular system ........................................................................................ 13
Muscles produce movement or generate tension p103-113 ................................................. 13
Cardiac and smooth muscles have special features p114+115 ............................................ 13
Diseases and disorders of the muscular system .................................................................. 13
Hoofdstuk 6: Blood ................................................................................................................ 13
Circulatory system overview p121 ...................................................................................... 13
The composition and functions of blood p123 ..................................................................... 13
1
, Hemostasis: stopping blood loss ........................................................................................ 15
Human blood types............................................................................................................ 15
Blood substitutes............................................................................................................... 16
Blood disorders ................................................................................................................. 16
Hoofdstuk 7: Heart and blood vessels .................................................................................... 16
Blood vessels transport blood p142 .................................................................................... 16
The heart pumps blood through the vessels p147 ................................................................ 17
Blood experts pressure against vessel walls ........................................................................ 17
Cardiovascular disorders: major health issue...................................................................... 17
Replacing a failing heart ..................................................................................................... 18
Hoofdstuk 8: The immune system and mechanisms of defence .............................................. 18
Pathogens cause disease p171........................................................................................... 18
The lymphatic system defends the body ............................................................................. 19
Medical assistance in the war against pathogens ................................................................ 21
Tissue rejection: a medical challenge ................................................................................. 21
Inappropriate immune system activity causes problems ..................................................... 21
Immune deficiency: the special case of AIDS p192 .............................................................. 22
Hoofdstuk 9: the respiratory system: exchange of gases .......................................................... 22
Respiration takes place throughout the body....................................................................... 22
Upper respiratory tract filters, warms and humidifies air ...................................................... 23
Disorders of the respiratory system..................................................................................... 23
Lung cancer is caused by proliferation of abnormal cells ..................................................... 24
Exposure to asbestos can lead to mesothelioma ................................................................. 24
Pneumothorax and atelectasis: a failure of gas exchange .................................................... 24
Congestive heart failure impairs lung function ..................................................................... 24
Hoofdstuk 10: The endocrine system...................................................................................... 25
The endocrine system produces hormones p227 ................................................................ 25
Hormones are classified as steroid and nonsteroid ............................................................. 25
The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland ........................................................................... 25
The anterior pituitary gland produces 6 key hormones ......................................................... 25
Pituitary disorders: hypersecretion and hyposecretion ........................................................ 25
The pancreas secretes glucagon, insulin and somatostatin ................................................. 26
The adrenal glands comprise the cortex and medulla p 237 ................................................. 26
The adrenal cortex: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids ................................................ 26
The thyroid gland: thyroxine speeds cellular metabolism ..................................................... 26
Iodine deficiency can cause goiter ...................................................................................... 26
2
, Other chemical messengers ............................................................................................... 27
Disorders of the endocrine system ..................................................................................... 27
Hoofdstuk 11: The digestive system and nutrition ................................................................... 28
The digestive system brings nutrients into the body ............................................................. 28
Five basic processes accomplish digestive system function ................................................ 28
Two types of motility aid digestive processes....................................................................... 29
The mouth processes food for swallowing ........................................................................... 29
The stomach stores food, digests proteins and regulates delivery ........................................ 29
Gastric juice breaks down proteins ..................................................................................... 29
Stomach contractions mix food and push it forward p257 .................................................... 29
Small intestine digests food and absorbs nutrients and water .............................................. 29
Accessory organs aid digestion and absorption p260........................................................... 30
The large intestine absorbs nutrients and eliminates wastes ................................................ 30
How nutrients are absorbed p262 ....................................................................................... 30
Nerves and hormones regulate digestion ............................................................................ 30
Nutrition: you are what you eat ........................................................................................... 31
Carbohydrates: a major energy source ................................................................................ 31
Lipids: essential cell components and energy sources ........................................................ 31
Complete proteins contain every amino acid ...................................................................... 31
Vitamins are essential for normal function .......................................................................... 31
Minerals: essential elements for body processes ................................................................ 31
Fiber benefits the colon ...................................................................................................... 32
Energy balance .................................................................................................................. 32
Healthy weight improves overall health ............................................................................... 32
Disorders of the digestive tract ........................................................................................... 32
Disorders of accessory organs ............................................................................................ 32
Hoofdstuk 12: The urinary system .......................................................................................... 32
Urinary system regulates body fluids .................................................................................. 32
The kidneys regulate nitrogenous wasted and other solutes................................................. 32
Urination depends on a reflex ............................................................................................. 33
Kidneys maintain homeostasis in many ways ...................................................................... 33
The renin-angiotensin system controls blood volume and blood pressure ............................ 33
Atrial natriuretic hormone protects against blood volume excess......................................... 33
Erythropoietin stimulates production of RBC ...................................................................... 33
Kidneys activate vitamin D.................................................................................................. 34
Disorders of the urinary system .......................................................................................... 34
3
, Dialysis cleanses blood artificially ...................................................................................... 34
Kidney transplant are a permanent solution to renal failure ................................................. 34
Urinary inconvenience is a loss of bladder control ............................................................... 34
Hoofdstuk 13: The reproductive system .................................................................................. 35
The male reproductive system p303.................................................................................... 35
Testosterone affects male reproductive capacity................................................................. 35
The female reproductive system p306................................................................................. 35
Menstrual cycle consists of ovarian and uterine cycles ........................................................ 35
The ovarian cycle: oocytes mature and are released ............................................................ 35
Human sexual response, intercourse and fertilization.......................................................... 36
Birth control methods: controlling fertility ........................................................................... 36
Pills, injections, patches and rings ...................................................................................... 36
Other birth control methods ............................................................................................... 36
Elective abortion ................................................................................................................ 36
Infertility: inability to conceive ............................................................................................ 36
Enhancing fertility .............................................................................................................. 37
Sexually transmitted diseases ............................................................................................ 37
Viral STDs: ......................................................................................................................... 37
Other STDs: yeast infections .............................................................................................. 38
Hoofdstuk 15: Uncontrolled cell division and differentiation (cancer) ...................................... 38
Cell growth, division and differentiation .............................................................................. 38
Tumor (neoplasm) can be benign or cancerous ................................................................... 38
Cancerous cells lose control of their functions and structure .............................................. 38
Characteristics of benign tumors and cancer ...................................................................... 39
How cancer develops ......................................................................................................... 39
Regulatory proteins ............................................................................................................ 39
A variety of factors can lead to cancer ................................................................................. 39
DNA semiconservative replication in interphase ................................................................. 39
Mutation: disrupting reading frame of triple code (codon) .................................................... 39
What causes cancer?......................................................................................................... 39
Immune system plays an important role in cancer prevention .............................................. 40
Advances in diagnosis: early detection ............................................................................... 40
Cancer treatments: problem removing/destroying only cancer cells not healthy cells ........... 40
Other notable cancers: skin cancer .................................................................................... 40
Hoofdstuk 16: Genetics and inheritance ................................................................................. 40
Your genotype is the genetic basis of your phenotype .......................................................... 40
4
,Hoofdstuk 17: Development, maturation, aging, and death ..................................................... 41
Barriers and challenges on the sperm’s journey ................................................................... 41
Twins may be fraternal or identical ...................................................................................... 41
Development processes: cleavage, growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis .................. 42
Pre-embryonic development: the first 2 weeks .................................................................... 42
Embryonic development: weeks 3-8 ................................................................................... 42
Extra-embryonic membranes ............................................................................................. 42
The placenta and umbilical cord ......................................................................................... 42
The embryo develops rapidly .............................................................................................. 43
Gender development ......................................................................................................... 43
Fetal development: 9 weeks to birth months 3 & 4 ............................................................... 43
Fetal development: 9 weeks to birth months 5 & 6 ............................................................... 43
Fetal development: 9 weeks to birth months 7 – 9................................................................ 43
Birth and early postnatal period, labor ends in delivery ........................................................ 44
The transition from fetus to newborn................................................................................... 44
Lactation produces milk to nourish newborn....................................................................... 44
Maturation from birth to adulthood ..................................................................................... 44
Aging ................................................................................................................................. 45
What causes aging? ........................................................................................................... 45
An internal cellular program counts cell divisions: ............................................................... 45
Cells become damaged beyond repair ................................................................................ 45
Aging is a whole-body process............................................................................................ 45
Body systems age at diff rates – Musculoskeletal system and skin ....................................... 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Cardiovascular and respiratory system ............................... 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Immune system ................................................................. 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Nervous and sensory systems ............................................ 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Reproductive and endocrine systems ................................. 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Digestion and nutrition ....................................................... 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Urinary system ................................................................... 46
Death ................................................................................................................................ 46
5
, Menselijke biologie en genetica
Hoofdstuk 1: The chemistry of living things
Life depends on water
- Key properties of water:
➔ Excellent solvent (oplosmiddel)
• Solute = any dissolved substance (oplossing)
➔ Evaporation if it uses up heat energy
➔ Water can absorb and hold heat energy
➔ Water participates in essential chemical reactions
- Water is the biological solvent
➔ Hydrophilic: polar molecules that are attracted to water & interact with it easily
➔ Hydrophobic: nonpolar, neutral molecules that don’t interact with water & won’t
dissolve in it
- Water helps regulate body temp:
➔ Prevents large increases/rapid changes in body temp
➔ We lose heat by evaporation of water (sweat)
The importance of hydrogen ions
- Acid = any molecule that can donate H+ ion (pH 0-6)
➔ When added to pure water → acidic solution with higher H+ concentration
- Base = any molecule that can accept an H+ ion (pH 8-14)
➔ Added to water → alkaline solution with lower H+ concentration
- pH scale expresses hydrogen ion concentration
➔ Measures hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
- Buffers minimize changes in pH
➔ Essential to maintain homeostasis of pH in body fluids
➔ Carbonic acid and bicarbonate = most important
The organic molecules of living organisms
- Organic molecules = contain carbon and other elements held together by covalent bonds
(binding tss 2 niet-metalen)
- Macromolecules are synthesized and broken down within the cell: dia9
➔ Dehydration synthesis: removes equivalent of a water molecule to link molecular units,
requires energy & builds macromolecules from smaller subunits
➔ Hydrolysis: adds equivalent of a water molecule to break apart macromolecules,
releases energy
➔ Macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids
Carbohydrates: used for energy and structural support
- General formula: Cn(H2O)n
- Monosaccharides: simple sugars
➔ Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
- Oligosaccharides: 1+ monosaccharide linked together
➔ Monosaccharides can be linked together via dehydration synthesis
➔ Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides linked together
• Sucrose= glucose + fructose
• Maltose= glucose + glucose
• Lactose= glucose + galactose
- Polysaccharides store energy:
6
, ➔ Polysaccharides= thousands of monosaccharides joined in linear and/or branched
chains
➔ Examples:
• Starch: made in plants; stores energy
• Glycogen: made in animals; stores energy
• Cellulose: indigestible polysaccharide made in plants for structural support
Lipids: insoluble in water
- 3 important classes of lipids:
➔ Triglycerides: energy storage molecules (aka fats & oils)
• Composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
➢ Fatty acids: saturated (in fats) & unsaturated (in oils) dia18
• Stored in adipose tissue & important source of stored energy
➔ Phospholipids: cell membrane structure
• Structure: dia20
➢ Glycerol + 2 fatty acids and phosphate group
➢ One end of molecule (phosphate and glycerol) is water soluble (hydrophilic)
➢ Other end of molecule (2 fatty acid tails) is water insoluble (hydrophobic)
• Function: primary component of cell membranes
➔ Steroids: carbon-based ring structures
• Structure: composed of 4 carbon rings dia22
• Examples: cholesterol, hormones (oestrogen, testosterone)
Proteins: complex structures constructed of amino acids
- Proteins = long chains (polymers) of subunits called amino acids
- Amino acids:
➔ 20 different types
➔ Amino end, carboxyl end, R group
➔ Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, which are produced by dehydration synthesis
reactions
➔ Peptide bond: forms between carboxyl end of one amino acid and amino end of the next
amino acid
➔ Polypeptide: a polymer of 3-100 amino acids
➔ Protein: a polypeptide longer than 100 amino acids that has a complex structure and
function
Nucleic acids store genetic information
- 2 types of nucleic acids:
➔ DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid dia32
➔ RNA: ribonucleic acid dia33
- DNA contains the instructions for producing RNA
- RNA contains the instructions for producing proteins
- Proteins direct most life processes (DNA → RNA → Proteins)
- Nucleotides: building blocks (monomers) of nucleic acids
- Each nucleotide contains:
➔ 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose + ribose), nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C), phosphate group
ATP carries energy dia34
7
Hoofdstuk 1: The chemistry of living things ...............................................................................6
Life depends on water ..........................................................................................................6
The importance of hydrogen ions ..........................................................................................6
The organic molecules of living organisms ............................................................................6
Carbohydrates: used for energy and structural support .........................................................6
Lipids: insoluble in water ......................................................................................................7
Proteins: complex structures constructed of amino acids .....................................................7
Nucleic acids store genetic information ................................................................................7
ATP carries energy dia34 ......................................................................................................7
Hoofdstuk 2: Structure and function of cells .............................................................................8
Cells are classified according to their internal organization....................................................8
Molecules cross the plasma membrane in several ways ........................................................8
Cells use and transform matter and energy ...........................................................................9
Hoofdstuk 3: From cells to organ systems .............................................................................. 10
Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces & cavities ................................................................. 10
Connective tissue supports and connects body parts.......................................................... 10
Muscle tissues contract to produce movement ................................................................... 11
Nervous tissue transmits impulses ..................................................................................... 11
Organs and organ systems perform complex functions ....................................................... 11
The skin as an organ system ............................................................................................... 11
Hoofdstuk 4: The skeletal system ........................................................................................... 12
The skeletal system consists of connective tissue ............................................................... 12
Bones develop from cartilage ............................................................................................. 12
Mature bone undergoes remodelling and repair................................................................... 12
Bones fit together to form the skeleton................................................................................ 12
Joints form connections between bones ............................................................................. 12
Diseases and disorders of the skeletal system .................................................................... 12
Hoofdstuk 5: The muscular system ........................................................................................ 13
Muscles produce movement or generate tension p103-113 ................................................. 13
Cardiac and smooth muscles have special features p114+115 ............................................ 13
Diseases and disorders of the muscular system .................................................................. 13
Hoofdstuk 6: Blood ................................................................................................................ 13
Circulatory system overview p121 ...................................................................................... 13
The composition and functions of blood p123 ..................................................................... 13
1
, Hemostasis: stopping blood loss ........................................................................................ 15
Human blood types............................................................................................................ 15
Blood substitutes............................................................................................................... 16
Blood disorders ................................................................................................................. 16
Hoofdstuk 7: Heart and blood vessels .................................................................................... 16
Blood vessels transport blood p142 .................................................................................... 16
The heart pumps blood through the vessels p147 ................................................................ 17
Blood experts pressure against vessel walls ........................................................................ 17
Cardiovascular disorders: major health issue...................................................................... 17
Replacing a failing heart ..................................................................................................... 18
Hoofdstuk 8: The immune system and mechanisms of defence .............................................. 18
Pathogens cause disease p171........................................................................................... 18
The lymphatic system defends the body ............................................................................. 19
Medical assistance in the war against pathogens ................................................................ 21
Tissue rejection: a medical challenge ................................................................................. 21
Inappropriate immune system activity causes problems ..................................................... 21
Immune deficiency: the special case of AIDS p192 .............................................................. 22
Hoofdstuk 9: the respiratory system: exchange of gases .......................................................... 22
Respiration takes place throughout the body....................................................................... 22
Upper respiratory tract filters, warms and humidifies air ...................................................... 23
Disorders of the respiratory system..................................................................................... 23
Lung cancer is caused by proliferation of abnormal cells ..................................................... 24
Exposure to asbestos can lead to mesothelioma ................................................................. 24
Pneumothorax and atelectasis: a failure of gas exchange .................................................... 24
Congestive heart failure impairs lung function ..................................................................... 24
Hoofdstuk 10: The endocrine system...................................................................................... 25
The endocrine system produces hormones p227 ................................................................ 25
Hormones are classified as steroid and nonsteroid ............................................................. 25
The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland ........................................................................... 25
The anterior pituitary gland produces 6 key hormones ......................................................... 25
Pituitary disorders: hypersecretion and hyposecretion ........................................................ 25
The pancreas secretes glucagon, insulin and somatostatin ................................................. 26
The adrenal glands comprise the cortex and medulla p 237 ................................................. 26
The adrenal cortex: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids ................................................ 26
The thyroid gland: thyroxine speeds cellular metabolism ..................................................... 26
Iodine deficiency can cause goiter ...................................................................................... 26
2
, Other chemical messengers ............................................................................................... 27
Disorders of the endocrine system ..................................................................................... 27
Hoofdstuk 11: The digestive system and nutrition ................................................................... 28
The digestive system brings nutrients into the body ............................................................. 28
Five basic processes accomplish digestive system function ................................................ 28
Two types of motility aid digestive processes....................................................................... 29
The mouth processes food for swallowing ........................................................................... 29
The stomach stores food, digests proteins and regulates delivery ........................................ 29
Gastric juice breaks down proteins ..................................................................................... 29
Stomach contractions mix food and push it forward p257 .................................................... 29
Small intestine digests food and absorbs nutrients and water .............................................. 29
Accessory organs aid digestion and absorption p260........................................................... 30
The large intestine absorbs nutrients and eliminates wastes ................................................ 30
How nutrients are absorbed p262 ....................................................................................... 30
Nerves and hormones regulate digestion ............................................................................ 30
Nutrition: you are what you eat ........................................................................................... 31
Carbohydrates: a major energy source ................................................................................ 31
Lipids: essential cell components and energy sources ........................................................ 31
Complete proteins contain every amino acid ...................................................................... 31
Vitamins are essential for normal function .......................................................................... 31
Minerals: essential elements for body processes ................................................................ 31
Fiber benefits the colon ...................................................................................................... 32
Energy balance .................................................................................................................. 32
Healthy weight improves overall health ............................................................................... 32
Disorders of the digestive tract ........................................................................................... 32
Disorders of accessory organs ............................................................................................ 32
Hoofdstuk 12: The urinary system .......................................................................................... 32
Urinary system regulates body fluids .................................................................................. 32
The kidneys regulate nitrogenous wasted and other solutes................................................. 32
Urination depends on a reflex ............................................................................................. 33
Kidneys maintain homeostasis in many ways ...................................................................... 33
The renin-angiotensin system controls blood volume and blood pressure ............................ 33
Atrial natriuretic hormone protects against blood volume excess......................................... 33
Erythropoietin stimulates production of RBC ...................................................................... 33
Kidneys activate vitamin D.................................................................................................. 34
Disorders of the urinary system .......................................................................................... 34
3
, Dialysis cleanses blood artificially ...................................................................................... 34
Kidney transplant are a permanent solution to renal failure ................................................. 34
Urinary inconvenience is a loss of bladder control ............................................................... 34
Hoofdstuk 13: The reproductive system .................................................................................. 35
The male reproductive system p303.................................................................................... 35
Testosterone affects male reproductive capacity................................................................. 35
The female reproductive system p306................................................................................. 35
Menstrual cycle consists of ovarian and uterine cycles ........................................................ 35
The ovarian cycle: oocytes mature and are released ............................................................ 35
Human sexual response, intercourse and fertilization.......................................................... 36
Birth control methods: controlling fertility ........................................................................... 36
Pills, injections, patches and rings ...................................................................................... 36
Other birth control methods ............................................................................................... 36
Elective abortion ................................................................................................................ 36
Infertility: inability to conceive ............................................................................................ 36
Enhancing fertility .............................................................................................................. 37
Sexually transmitted diseases ............................................................................................ 37
Viral STDs: ......................................................................................................................... 37
Other STDs: yeast infections .............................................................................................. 38
Hoofdstuk 15: Uncontrolled cell division and differentiation (cancer) ...................................... 38
Cell growth, division and differentiation .............................................................................. 38
Tumor (neoplasm) can be benign or cancerous ................................................................... 38
Cancerous cells lose control of their functions and structure .............................................. 38
Characteristics of benign tumors and cancer ...................................................................... 39
How cancer develops ......................................................................................................... 39
Regulatory proteins ............................................................................................................ 39
A variety of factors can lead to cancer ................................................................................. 39
DNA semiconservative replication in interphase ................................................................. 39
Mutation: disrupting reading frame of triple code (codon) .................................................... 39
What causes cancer?......................................................................................................... 39
Immune system plays an important role in cancer prevention .............................................. 40
Advances in diagnosis: early detection ............................................................................... 40
Cancer treatments: problem removing/destroying only cancer cells not healthy cells ........... 40
Other notable cancers: skin cancer .................................................................................... 40
Hoofdstuk 16: Genetics and inheritance ................................................................................. 40
Your genotype is the genetic basis of your phenotype .......................................................... 40
4
,Hoofdstuk 17: Development, maturation, aging, and death ..................................................... 41
Barriers and challenges on the sperm’s journey ................................................................... 41
Twins may be fraternal or identical ...................................................................................... 41
Development processes: cleavage, growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis .................. 42
Pre-embryonic development: the first 2 weeks .................................................................... 42
Embryonic development: weeks 3-8 ................................................................................... 42
Extra-embryonic membranes ............................................................................................. 42
The placenta and umbilical cord ......................................................................................... 42
The embryo develops rapidly .............................................................................................. 43
Gender development ......................................................................................................... 43
Fetal development: 9 weeks to birth months 3 & 4 ............................................................... 43
Fetal development: 9 weeks to birth months 5 & 6 ............................................................... 43
Fetal development: 9 weeks to birth months 7 – 9................................................................ 43
Birth and early postnatal period, labor ends in delivery ........................................................ 44
The transition from fetus to newborn................................................................................... 44
Lactation produces milk to nourish newborn....................................................................... 44
Maturation from birth to adulthood ..................................................................................... 44
Aging ................................................................................................................................. 45
What causes aging? ........................................................................................................... 45
An internal cellular program counts cell divisions: ............................................................... 45
Cells become damaged beyond repair ................................................................................ 45
Aging is a whole-body process............................................................................................ 45
Body systems age at diff rates – Musculoskeletal system and skin ....................................... 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Cardiovascular and respiratory system ............................... 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Immune system ................................................................. 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Nervous and sensory systems ............................................ 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Reproductive and endocrine systems ................................. 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Digestion and nutrition ....................................................... 46
Body systems age at diff rates – Urinary system ................................................................... 46
Death ................................................................................................................................ 46
5
, Menselijke biologie en genetica
Hoofdstuk 1: The chemistry of living things
Life depends on water
- Key properties of water:
➔ Excellent solvent (oplosmiddel)
• Solute = any dissolved substance (oplossing)
➔ Evaporation if it uses up heat energy
➔ Water can absorb and hold heat energy
➔ Water participates in essential chemical reactions
- Water is the biological solvent
➔ Hydrophilic: polar molecules that are attracted to water & interact with it easily
➔ Hydrophobic: nonpolar, neutral molecules that don’t interact with water & won’t
dissolve in it
- Water helps regulate body temp:
➔ Prevents large increases/rapid changes in body temp
➔ We lose heat by evaporation of water (sweat)
The importance of hydrogen ions
- Acid = any molecule that can donate H+ ion (pH 0-6)
➔ When added to pure water → acidic solution with higher H+ concentration
- Base = any molecule that can accept an H+ ion (pH 8-14)
➔ Added to water → alkaline solution with lower H+ concentration
- pH scale expresses hydrogen ion concentration
➔ Measures hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
- Buffers minimize changes in pH
➔ Essential to maintain homeostasis of pH in body fluids
➔ Carbonic acid and bicarbonate = most important
The organic molecules of living organisms
- Organic molecules = contain carbon and other elements held together by covalent bonds
(binding tss 2 niet-metalen)
- Macromolecules are synthesized and broken down within the cell: dia9
➔ Dehydration synthesis: removes equivalent of a water molecule to link molecular units,
requires energy & builds macromolecules from smaller subunits
➔ Hydrolysis: adds equivalent of a water molecule to break apart macromolecules,
releases energy
➔ Macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids
Carbohydrates: used for energy and structural support
- General formula: Cn(H2O)n
- Monosaccharides: simple sugars
➔ Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
- Oligosaccharides: 1+ monosaccharide linked together
➔ Monosaccharides can be linked together via dehydration synthesis
➔ Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides linked together
• Sucrose= glucose + fructose
• Maltose= glucose + glucose
• Lactose= glucose + galactose
- Polysaccharides store energy:
6
, ➔ Polysaccharides= thousands of monosaccharides joined in linear and/or branched
chains
➔ Examples:
• Starch: made in plants; stores energy
• Glycogen: made in animals; stores energy
• Cellulose: indigestible polysaccharide made in plants for structural support
Lipids: insoluble in water
- 3 important classes of lipids:
➔ Triglycerides: energy storage molecules (aka fats & oils)
• Composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
➢ Fatty acids: saturated (in fats) & unsaturated (in oils) dia18
• Stored in adipose tissue & important source of stored energy
➔ Phospholipids: cell membrane structure
• Structure: dia20
➢ Glycerol + 2 fatty acids and phosphate group
➢ One end of molecule (phosphate and glycerol) is water soluble (hydrophilic)
➢ Other end of molecule (2 fatty acid tails) is water insoluble (hydrophobic)
• Function: primary component of cell membranes
➔ Steroids: carbon-based ring structures
• Structure: composed of 4 carbon rings dia22
• Examples: cholesterol, hormones (oestrogen, testosterone)
Proteins: complex structures constructed of amino acids
- Proteins = long chains (polymers) of subunits called amino acids
- Amino acids:
➔ 20 different types
➔ Amino end, carboxyl end, R group
➔ Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, which are produced by dehydration synthesis
reactions
➔ Peptide bond: forms between carboxyl end of one amino acid and amino end of the next
amino acid
➔ Polypeptide: a polymer of 3-100 amino acids
➔ Protein: a polypeptide longer than 100 amino acids that has a complex structure and
function
Nucleic acids store genetic information
- 2 types of nucleic acids:
➔ DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid dia32
➔ RNA: ribonucleic acid dia33
- DNA contains the instructions for producing RNA
- RNA contains the instructions for producing proteins
- Proteins direct most life processes (DNA → RNA → Proteins)
- Nucleotides: building blocks (monomers) of nucleic acids
- Each nucleotide contains:
➔ 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose + ribose), nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C), phosphate group
ATP carries energy dia34
7
