History of political ideologies
Introduction to the history of
political ideologies
Introduction
Syllabus is not a classical history of political ideas for various reasons:
1. The history described has a specific focus the evolution in thinking about emancipation
and in particular the changing ideas about freedom, equality and fraternity
2. The overview is not only limited to political or philosophical views on emancipation, also
includes the broader spectrum of human development
3. The ideas of the intellectuals and philosophers are not simple seen as the creations of
otherwise very intelligent observers, but as the emanations of a certain context ideas of
individuals or groups being described are an embodiment of a certain way of thinking that is
inspired by a complex set of factors
Many problems and practical issues arise when writing such an integrating history:
1. There are limits on how many details, how many facts can be included to contextualize
certain ideas so that they remain clear to the reader
2. The choice of thinkers and political groups 2 questions behind this issue:
a. We cannot handle every thinker extensively
b. Our retrospective look that we willingly use
3. Where to start the history? Renaissance in a story of human emancipation capitalism,
gradually replaced feudalism
4. Predominantly Western, Eurocentric character of classical histories of ideas, world is too
often degraded by a passive observer of history without own input, without ideas about
equality or freedom, without an active role in world affairs
History of emancipation is inextricably linked to conflicts of power emancipation = process full of
tensions, conflicts and contradictions between various groups, social classes social groups not only
make use of material weapons but also arm themselves mentally
No term as hard to define as ideology
Destutt de Tracy: ideology: to capture human actions and thinking in rational laws so that the
entire society could be explained far removed from what is understood today by the
concept
Andrew Heywood: ideology = a set of ideas that forms the basis for organized political action
whether it is intended to preserve, adjust or overthrow the existing power system.
minimum definition
<-> theory similarities and differences between scientific theory and ideology:
1
,History of political ideologies
Ideology includes views that are both prescriptive and normative attempt to get a grip on the
socio-political environment as it is and as it should be, is a supra-individual phenomenon
ideologies strive to intervene in reality, they must necessarily be oriented towards a movement,
when movement is missing, it is no longer an ideology
ideology does not coincide a doctrine = a set of views that seeks to shape the socio-political
relationships, but is formally proclaimed by an official body that takes the lead within an institution
How can we measure the relevance of an ideology? no definite answer to this question 3
reasons:
1. There is always a distance between the text and the way in which it is handled by different
groups in reality
2. Easy to overestimate the influence of intellectuals, political thinkers or ideologues and their
production
3. Ideology has always to do with language, with meanings and with signifiers
Politics/policy
Early 1960s: Daniel Bell: announced the end of ideologies tried to show that both Marxism/
Socialism and classical liberalism had lost their appeal ppl who experienced the great depression
of the 1930s, Stalinism, Nazism, … reluctant to engage politically in ideas and ideologies that
seemed extreme <-> opt for a pragmatic political attitude towards the welfare state that took shape
during the 1950s
2
,History of political ideologies
End of Cold War: Francis Fukuyama: not only end of ideologies, but end of history too victory of
liberal democracy = ideal form of government when ideology and history come to an end, politics
disappears in policy
BUT post-war situation constantly produced facts that contradicted the idea of an end of ideology +
Gulf wars, terrorism, populism, … proof that history is not to an end
Conclusion: in our individualized post-modern/post-political society is a tendency that we mistakenly
assume that an efficient and coherent ‘policy’ can solve all social problems powerful technocratic
idea: any form of injustice that exists in our society could be remedied through social engineering
policy = presented as apolitical <-> if policy is pushed outside the domain of politics, then politics will
be downgraded to mere management
And the rest of the world …
Third World = Global South
Eurocentrism = extension of an actual unequal balance of power Europe confronted by this view
by second and third immigrant communities that raise their voices and make claims that debunk
Eurocentric thinking
Clearest example = Islam: until 1990s Islam was mainly an issue that was discussed by scholars,
orientalists, … now: Islam has become the subject of debates at the highest political levels and has
become the subject of the most heated discussions in cafes and bars
Globalization functions as a powerful myth, nothing natural about globalization undeniable
evidence of the internalization of the economy and politics, but globalization is not a myth
Myth = a social story that helps us to make the world around us known and conceivable and to give
meaning to social practices and relationships difficult to discuss or question draws its social
power from the fact that it spreads without an apparent author
becomes a powerful truth because it is shared and spread over ‘many’ with no clear origin <->
globalization: functions as a system of shared beliefs, constructed on the basis of a social imaginary
is just as much a self-fulfilling prophecy as an empirical fact
We have arrived in a phase of ‘post-politics’ = a situation in which oppositional ideologies that were
supported by different parties and who, within democracy, vied for the favour of voters, is replaced
by a general consensus that capitalism and the free functioning of the market form the basis of
politics
new forms of policy are implemented under motto of technical efficiency and in the name of
necessity of the global market
2010s: shown a worldwide renewed interest in the political (<-> politics)
Mohammed Bouazizi triggered a chain of uprisings throughout the Arab World other uprisings
and mass mobilizations followed around the globe
different forms of protest emerged in very different historical, geopolitical and geographical
contexts but ‘common in revolt’ has grown
3
, History of political ideologies
Part 1: The breakthrough of capitalism and the rise of the bourgeois society
1. The search for a new framework (1450-1650)
Renaissance in European history = various important changes in the political and economic
organization of (European) societies, the changing place of religion as well as the gradual emergence
of new ideas about ‘man’ and society that have had a very slow but indelible impact on Western
European societies. often characterized by historians as a period defined by the flourishing of the
arts and the literature based on the Antiquity.
Term first used by Italian humanists wanted to show that after a long period of decline, the
Middle Ages, Europe was undergoing a phase of rebirth
Renaissance also refers to:
the gradual demise of the feudal system and the emergence of new economic relationships
the discovery of new countries and continents through the growth of shipping
the development of new scientific insights
the introduction of knowledge from other worlds
time in Europe where old world order starts being questioned, the obviousness of the medieval
order is being challenged
Ideal society guided by principles as wisdom and justice <-> build a society in practice, in which
monarchy is set aside? end result: rearrangement of forces within absolute nation-states
Aristocratic Renaissance (rediscovery of the classical works of Antiquity central) <-> empirical and
forward-looking Renaissance (focus on ‘faith’ in man’s future instead of past)
Conclusion:
Crumbling of the impact of christian cosmology and emergence of science
Transition from feudal principalities to absolutism
Slow and gradual emergence of capitalism
End of the catholic hegemony
1.1 The end of the Catholic hegemony
During medieval times: dominant ideology = Christianism, ecclesiastical ideology does not survive
period of 1450-1650
Scientist began to free themselves from the religious ideas first one: Galileo investigated that
the earth was a globe and that sun was central and not earth (heliocentrism), earth moves around
the sun. Cosmology was important part of how earth was centralised religious idea of that earth
was central was found wrong, so heliocentrism was found an attack on the church. emancipation
of science from religion and church was long process wrought with tensions and conflicts
1486: Henrich Kramer: ‘Malleus maleficarum’, best known treatise on witchcraft <-> 16 th and 17th
centuries = centuries in which the persecution of witches and magicians took unprecedented
proportions
4
Introduction to the history of
political ideologies
Introduction
Syllabus is not a classical history of political ideas for various reasons:
1. The history described has a specific focus the evolution in thinking about emancipation
and in particular the changing ideas about freedom, equality and fraternity
2. The overview is not only limited to political or philosophical views on emancipation, also
includes the broader spectrum of human development
3. The ideas of the intellectuals and philosophers are not simple seen as the creations of
otherwise very intelligent observers, but as the emanations of a certain context ideas of
individuals or groups being described are an embodiment of a certain way of thinking that is
inspired by a complex set of factors
Many problems and practical issues arise when writing such an integrating history:
1. There are limits on how many details, how many facts can be included to contextualize
certain ideas so that they remain clear to the reader
2. The choice of thinkers and political groups 2 questions behind this issue:
a. We cannot handle every thinker extensively
b. Our retrospective look that we willingly use
3. Where to start the history? Renaissance in a story of human emancipation capitalism,
gradually replaced feudalism
4. Predominantly Western, Eurocentric character of classical histories of ideas, world is too
often degraded by a passive observer of history without own input, without ideas about
equality or freedom, without an active role in world affairs
History of emancipation is inextricably linked to conflicts of power emancipation = process full of
tensions, conflicts and contradictions between various groups, social classes social groups not only
make use of material weapons but also arm themselves mentally
No term as hard to define as ideology
Destutt de Tracy: ideology: to capture human actions and thinking in rational laws so that the
entire society could be explained far removed from what is understood today by the
concept
Andrew Heywood: ideology = a set of ideas that forms the basis for organized political action
whether it is intended to preserve, adjust or overthrow the existing power system.
minimum definition
<-> theory similarities and differences between scientific theory and ideology:
1
,History of political ideologies
Ideology includes views that are both prescriptive and normative attempt to get a grip on the
socio-political environment as it is and as it should be, is a supra-individual phenomenon
ideologies strive to intervene in reality, they must necessarily be oriented towards a movement,
when movement is missing, it is no longer an ideology
ideology does not coincide a doctrine = a set of views that seeks to shape the socio-political
relationships, but is formally proclaimed by an official body that takes the lead within an institution
How can we measure the relevance of an ideology? no definite answer to this question 3
reasons:
1. There is always a distance between the text and the way in which it is handled by different
groups in reality
2. Easy to overestimate the influence of intellectuals, political thinkers or ideologues and their
production
3. Ideology has always to do with language, with meanings and with signifiers
Politics/policy
Early 1960s: Daniel Bell: announced the end of ideologies tried to show that both Marxism/
Socialism and classical liberalism had lost their appeal ppl who experienced the great depression
of the 1930s, Stalinism, Nazism, … reluctant to engage politically in ideas and ideologies that
seemed extreme <-> opt for a pragmatic political attitude towards the welfare state that took shape
during the 1950s
2
,History of political ideologies
End of Cold War: Francis Fukuyama: not only end of ideologies, but end of history too victory of
liberal democracy = ideal form of government when ideology and history come to an end, politics
disappears in policy
BUT post-war situation constantly produced facts that contradicted the idea of an end of ideology +
Gulf wars, terrorism, populism, … proof that history is not to an end
Conclusion: in our individualized post-modern/post-political society is a tendency that we mistakenly
assume that an efficient and coherent ‘policy’ can solve all social problems powerful technocratic
idea: any form of injustice that exists in our society could be remedied through social engineering
policy = presented as apolitical <-> if policy is pushed outside the domain of politics, then politics will
be downgraded to mere management
And the rest of the world …
Third World = Global South
Eurocentrism = extension of an actual unequal balance of power Europe confronted by this view
by second and third immigrant communities that raise their voices and make claims that debunk
Eurocentric thinking
Clearest example = Islam: until 1990s Islam was mainly an issue that was discussed by scholars,
orientalists, … now: Islam has become the subject of debates at the highest political levels and has
become the subject of the most heated discussions in cafes and bars
Globalization functions as a powerful myth, nothing natural about globalization undeniable
evidence of the internalization of the economy and politics, but globalization is not a myth
Myth = a social story that helps us to make the world around us known and conceivable and to give
meaning to social practices and relationships difficult to discuss or question draws its social
power from the fact that it spreads without an apparent author
becomes a powerful truth because it is shared and spread over ‘many’ with no clear origin <->
globalization: functions as a system of shared beliefs, constructed on the basis of a social imaginary
is just as much a self-fulfilling prophecy as an empirical fact
We have arrived in a phase of ‘post-politics’ = a situation in which oppositional ideologies that were
supported by different parties and who, within democracy, vied for the favour of voters, is replaced
by a general consensus that capitalism and the free functioning of the market form the basis of
politics
new forms of policy are implemented under motto of technical efficiency and in the name of
necessity of the global market
2010s: shown a worldwide renewed interest in the political (<-> politics)
Mohammed Bouazizi triggered a chain of uprisings throughout the Arab World other uprisings
and mass mobilizations followed around the globe
different forms of protest emerged in very different historical, geopolitical and geographical
contexts but ‘common in revolt’ has grown
3
, History of political ideologies
Part 1: The breakthrough of capitalism and the rise of the bourgeois society
1. The search for a new framework (1450-1650)
Renaissance in European history = various important changes in the political and economic
organization of (European) societies, the changing place of religion as well as the gradual emergence
of new ideas about ‘man’ and society that have had a very slow but indelible impact on Western
European societies. often characterized by historians as a period defined by the flourishing of the
arts and the literature based on the Antiquity.
Term first used by Italian humanists wanted to show that after a long period of decline, the
Middle Ages, Europe was undergoing a phase of rebirth
Renaissance also refers to:
the gradual demise of the feudal system and the emergence of new economic relationships
the discovery of new countries and continents through the growth of shipping
the development of new scientific insights
the introduction of knowledge from other worlds
time in Europe where old world order starts being questioned, the obviousness of the medieval
order is being challenged
Ideal society guided by principles as wisdom and justice <-> build a society in practice, in which
monarchy is set aside? end result: rearrangement of forces within absolute nation-states
Aristocratic Renaissance (rediscovery of the classical works of Antiquity central) <-> empirical and
forward-looking Renaissance (focus on ‘faith’ in man’s future instead of past)
Conclusion:
Crumbling of the impact of christian cosmology and emergence of science
Transition from feudal principalities to absolutism
Slow and gradual emergence of capitalism
End of the catholic hegemony
1.1 The end of the Catholic hegemony
During medieval times: dominant ideology = Christianism, ecclesiastical ideology does not survive
period of 1450-1650
Scientist began to free themselves from the religious ideas first one: Galileo investigated that
the earth was a globe and that sun was central and not earth (heliocentrism), earth moves around
the sun. Cosmology was important part of how earth was centralised religious idea of that earth
was central was found wrong, so heliocentrism was found an attack on the church. emancipation
of science from religion and church was long process wrought with tensions and conflicts
1486: Henrich Kramer: ‘Malleus maleficarum’, best known treatise on witchcraft <-> 16 th and 17th
centuries = centuries in which the persecution of witches and magicians took unprecedented
proportions
4
